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More Less | | GBP | | Visa, Check | Sample translations submitted: 17 English to Chinese: CAN CHINA STABILISE IT'S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT?
General field: Bus/Financial | Source text - English
CAN CHINA STABILISE IT'S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT?
by Professor Lina Song, Centre for Globalisation and Economic Policy, University of Nottingham
Synopsis:
Drawing from several empirical analyses of the latest available national household surveys and enterprise surveys of China, I argue that the economic policies the Chinese government adopted before and during the current 'economic slow-down' are the products of political confusions. I examine whether opportunities to meet challenges over present and future economic problems are effectively acted upon.
It is true China is hit less seriously by this financial crisis. However this should not be credited to the Government's 'good' economic policy choices. To examine carefully, we find that this is actually due to China's lesser degree of marketisation. This is to say, China has not been hit badly simply because it has not yet grown into that phase. Therefore our question is whether China should remain stunted or grow into the maturity facing the challenges as a great nation.
Those who celebrate China's lucky escape tend to believe that China's current State monopoly over the capital market has protected the economy from exposure to danger and at the same time could promote healthy growth without further marketisation. Through our analysis, we find the opposite is true. The past decades' rapid growth is a mixed picture of State mobilisation of resources with a door left ajar for market competition. The current economic structure in terms of asset ownership and industrial sectoral balance may not advance growth without the establishment of a full market system. In particular, what is required is a full banking system allowing private borrowing based on credit-worthiness; the creation of a business environment which allows the private sector to grow; and a process of urbanisation which encourages a large number of Chinese peasant workers to be settled in urban centres.
China's State Sector is declining in terms of the size of employment but has become a vigorous force for market monopoly. This has led to a more powerful Party-State under which revenue does not effectively and efficiently benefit the nation, and which is distributed without the consensus of citizens. The financial constraints upon private firms, identified in research on all China's large and medium size firms, has indicated a bottleneck for a healthy development of the sector. Without consistent fiscal policies allowing finance to go to private firms, the private sector will not be able to smooth the economy during crisis, and the large number of workers engaged in this sector will not be stabilised during
To be continued on the reverse side…fluctuations in demand for their products. The short-term contracts between private firms and their employees demonstrated a missing link between workers' job security and safety nets.
If China is to go down the road of its market development, protectionism over its core industries through State monopoly or oligopoly would not work. More progressive economic policies should be considered, tried and implemented. China needs a further open-door policy to welcome a market system which promotes the private sector and allows it to compete with their State counterparts at the level ground. Avoidance of crisis this time does not indicate a permanent immunity from future troubles.
All Welcome.
| Translation - Chinese
讲座主题：中国能否稳定其经济发展？
主讲人：宋丽娜（音译Lina Song），诺丁汉大学莱弗休姆（音译Leverhulme）全球化与经济政策研究中心教授
内容摘要：
在借鉴了最新公布的中国全国家庭普查和企业调查的数项实证分析后，我认为中国政府在现今“经济放缓”之前和期间所采取的经济政策是政治混乱的产物。我还细察了机遇在应对目前及未来经济问题的挑战中是否有效地得到善用。
事实上中国受此次金融危机的冲击不太严重，然而这并不能归功于中国政府选择的“尚好”的经济政策。如若仔细考察，我们发现，实际上这完全得益于中国较弱的市场化程度。也就是说，中国未受猛烈经济冲击的原因仅仅是中国尚未发展至此阶段。因此，我们的问题在于中国究竟是停滞不前，还是逐渐成熟，以大国的姿态应对挑战。
那些欢庆中国幸运逃过此劫的人们倾向于认为：目前，中国政府对资本市场的垄断不仅确保经济免遭危机，还可在市场化程度未能进一步深化的情况下，促进经济的健康发展。通过分析，我们发现事实恰恰相反。中国过去十年的快速崛起毁誉参半，国有资源在半开半掩的市场竞争大门中调度流动。若不建立完整的市场体系，当前涉及资产所有权的经济机构以及产业部门间的平衡均难以推进。尤其是，急需完善银行体系，为建立在信誉基础上的私人借贷放行；急需创造商业环境，以促进私营经济发展；急需加速城市化进程，以鼓励大批中国农民工在城市中心安居乐业。
中国国有企业虽然在就业规模方面逐步缩减，但却成为市场垄断的强劲力量，从而产生了更为强势的党国体制。财政收入非但不能高效且迅速地使整个国家获益，其分配方式也未获得国民共识。针对私营企业的融资限制在对所有中国大中型企业的调研中均已发现，私营经济健康发展的瓶颈已经凸显。由于缺乏持续的财政政策，资金难以流入私营企业，私营经济未能顺利度过金融危机的难关；并且，当市场对私营经济的产品需求处于波动状态时，此行业中的大量工人朝不保夕。私营企业与其雇员之间的短期合同已经证明工人就业保障和安全网之间关键环节的缺失。
如果中国将沿着其自身的市场发展道路走下去，通过国有垄断或寡头垄断设立凌驾于其核心产业之上的保护主义，绝不可行。必须充分考虑、尝试和践行更多先进的经济政策。中国需要进一步深化对外开放政策以接受一种市场体制，该体制不但能促进私人企业发展，还允许其与相应的国有企业在同等水平上展开竞争。正所谓，躲得过一时危机，逃不过一世难关。
欢迎大家参与。
| English to Chinese: GLOBAL NORMS AGAINST TERRORISM AT WORK: GETTING INTERNATIONAL LAW IN MOTION
General field: Law/Patents | Source text - English
GLOBAL NORMS AGAINST TERRORISM AT WORK:
GETTING INTERNATIONAL LAW IN MOTION
Unit 1: Introduction
We would like to introduce this course in a slightly provocative way by inviting you to read and consider each of the following statements. Please think about whether or not you agree with them. Note down your ideas and reactions.
A government cannot seriously tackle terrorism unless it is ready to sacrifice some of the human rights to which its citizens are entitled.
Certain armed groups, even when they commit acts of violence against civilians, can never be considered terrorist groups because they use violence in order to oppose a brutal dictatorship or for other noble political goals.
We talk a lot about international cooperation against terrorism; however, unless we agree on a universal definition of terrorism, we cannot effectively address the problem.
The maximum assistance the United Nations can offer states in counter-terrorism is a series of guiding principles, applied almost exclusively through General Assembly resolutions.
The UN Security Council maintains a list of all the main individuals and organisations involved in terrorism worldwide, and calls for the prosecution of such individuals and organisations.
These statements cover some of the most controversial aspects surrounding the topic of terrorism and hide a number of misconceptions. After completing this course, in six weeks’ time, we invite you to revisit these statements and see if your perceptions, as you have noted them down, have changed.
In this course, we do not attempt to offer easy solutions to the often thorny and controversial issues surrounding terrorism. However, we are convinced that it is possible, and is actually the duty of every serious practitioner in this field, to identify basic legal parameters to guide the work of those who deal with counter-terrorism issues and criminal justice in their daily professional life. If this course succeeds in providing you with at least a small amount of legal clarity and direction in a jungle of concepts and notions that are often exploited for political purposes, it will have achieved its objective.
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video Interview 1)
Mr Jean-Paul Laborde (Former Chief, Terrorism Prevention Branch, UNODC) speaks about the importance for judges and prosecutors to get to know the Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism.
[Insert clip « UNODC 1 »]
1.1 Course Goals
At the end of the course you should be in the position to hold an informed, legally-based discussion about:
The place and role of the Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism within the broader legal discipline of International Criminal Law;
The functions, dynamics and interaction of the UN organs involved in counter-terrorism;
The features of Security Council Resolution 1373 and the functioning of the UN sanctions regime against Al Qaeda and the Taliban;
The requirements of the universal counter-terrorism conventions to translate certain offences into domestic law and extend grounds for jurisdiction;
The concrete legal mechanisms offered by the universal counter-terrorism conventions to facilitate extradition and mutual legal assistance;
The legal implications of, and challenges and obstacles to translating global norms in the field of counter-terrorism into national laws and practical tools for international cooperation.
1.2 Course Scope
This course will NOT cover special investigative techniques, methods to infiltrate terrorist networks, or ways to protect the crime scene when terrorist attacks are perpetrated. It goes without saying that these and other techniques are crucial aspects of counter-terrorism, but they are beyond the scope of this course.
In this course we focus on terrorism purely as a crime, and on the goal, stated in various UN Security Council resolutions including Resolution 1373, to “bring terrorists to justice.” We focus on the response that criminal justice systems can offer, and particularly on the dynamics and interactions of such systems. How do criminal justice systems relate to each other in counter-terrorism? Are there legal tools or other ways to improve such interactions?
The Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism, a set of legal norms elaborated by the international community over more than 40 years, offers a framework to address serious crimes through a wide array of criminal justice mechanisms. The regime is based on the premise that the perpetrators of terrorist crimes either should be brought to trial by their national governments, or should be extradited to a country willing to bring them to trial. The well-known principle aut dedere aut judicare (extradite or prosecute) aims to make the world inhospitable to terrorists and to those who finance and support them by denying them safe havens.
Why is it important to bring the Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism to your attention? Because the legal authority to enforce these measures against terrorism falls exclusively within the responsibility of sovereign states through the day-to-day work of national governmental and law enforcement officials, prosecutors and judges. No international tribunal exists with the competence to prosecute an offender for aircraft or ship hijacking, bombings of civilian targets or financing of terrorism. The jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court might in some cases be triggered, but only to the extent that such acts amount to genocide, war crimes or crimes against humanity. In any case, this has never happened so far. The legal instruments developed over decades to deal with those offences can only be implemented under national legislation which criminalises the defined offences, creates appropriate jurisdiction in domestic courts, and authorises the cooperation mechanisms provided in international instruments.
Finally, a few remarks as to why countering terrorism at the global level has become of paramount importance today. The reason has been effectively summarised by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan:
Terrorism strikes at the very heart of everything the United Nations stands for. It presents a global threat to democracy, the rule of law, human rights and stability. Globalisation brings home to us the importance of a truly concerted international effort to combat terrorism in all its forms and manifestations. (United Nations, 2001, p. iv)
Mr Annan’s statement introduces several concepts which often appear in counter-terrorism discourse: democracy, rule of law, human rights, and globalisation. No counter-terrorism policy or strategy can be considered serious unless it takes into account possible repercussions on the broader network of international commitments and obligations of states in these areas. Analysis of universal conventions against terrorism confirms that a state’s counter-terrorism response, whether it takes the form of an act of parliament, a decision to extradite a suspected terrorist, or something else, cannot be “compartmentalised.” This means that the specific goal to prevent or counter terrorism, whether terrorism in general or specific manifestations of terrorism, must merge considerations and objectives stemming from heterogeneous international legal sources. This is the most difficult and, we would argue, the most interesting aspect of work against terrorism. We will return to this point in more detail in the last lecture.
Activity 1
Focus on each of the notions included in Mr Annan’s statement (democracy, rule of law, human rights, globalisation) and think about:
How terrorism affects them;
How terrorists may exploit them to their advantage.
(Please complete this activity on your own, making note of your findings for future reference).
1.3 Resources
Most of the reading and reference materials you need for this course will be provided though web links. However, we encourage you to always keep a copy of the constitution and the criminal legislation of your country nearby. You will need to refer to these documents frequently to carry out a number of proposed exercises.
Finally, we would like to point out that the materials for this course have been prepared as a training tool in the context of the Global Project against Terrorism, which is managed by the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime. In the framework of this project, several other tools have been developed, such as Legislative Guides for the implementation of the Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism. You are invited to consult the materials available on the UNODC website which provide additional information and coverage of legal issues not fully addressed here.
Reference List
United Nations. (2001). International instruments related to the prevention and suppression of international terrorism. New York: United Nations.
| Translation - Chinese
正在发挥作用的全球反恐规范：
全球法律在行动
第一章：导言
我们想采取一种略微挑战的方式介绍本课程，请您阅读并考虑以下的每条陈述，想想您是否同意，请记录下您的观点和反应。
除非某一政府已准备好牺牲一些赋予其公民的人权，否则，该政府不能严肃认真地对抗恐怖主义。
即使某些武装团伙采取了针对平民的暴力行为，却不能被认为是恐怖主义集团，因为他们使用暴力的目的是反对残暴的独裁专政或者为了其他崇高的政治目标。
我们谈论了很多关于反恐国际合作的问题；但是，只有当我们同意一个恐怖主义的普遍定义时，我们才能有效解决问题。
联合国能够为成员国提供反恐领域最大程度的帮助是一系列的指导性原则，这些原则几乎都只能通过联合国大会决议而进行运用。
联合国安理会保有一份参与全球恐怖主义的所有主要人员和机构的名单，并且要求对这些个人和机构提起诉讼。
上述观点涵盖了在反恐怖主义领域中一些最具争议的问题并包含了许多误解，当您完成了六周的课程后，我们邀请您再回顾以上陈述并看看您的记录是否已经发生了改变。
在本课程中，我们不会尝试着为与恐怖主义相关的一些棘手和有争议的问题提供简单的解决方案，然而，我们坚信：识别基本法律参量以指导那些在日常职业生活中处理反恐问题和从事刑事司法工作的人员，这是该领域中每一位严肃认真的法律从业人员义不容辞的责任。只要本课程能成功地为您在往往被用于政治目的的概念森林中廓清了一些法律概念并指明方向，那么这个课程就达到了目的。
专家连线…
(视频采访1)
Jean-Paul Laborde 先生(联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室预防恐怖主义处前处长) 谈法官和检察官了解反恐怖主义普遍法律框架的重要性.
[插入短片 « UNODC 1 »]
1.1 课程目标
在本课程结束之际，您将有资格举行一次以法律为基础的学识丰富的讨论，有关内容如下:
反恐怖主义普遍法律制度在更为宽泛的国际刑法的法律学科中的地位和作用;
参与反恐的联合国机构的作用、动态和互动情况;
联合国安理会1373号决议的特点，联合国针对基地组织和塔利班制裁体系的作用;
反恐普遍公约的需求：将某些罪行转化为国内法律并扩展管辖权的理由；
全球反恐公约提供了实实在在的法律机制以促进引渡和司法互助程序;
将反恐领域的全球法规转化为国家法律及实用的国际合作工具的法律含义、挑战和障碍.
1.2 课程范围
本课程将不涉及调查研究性技巧，渗透进恐怖分子网络的方法，或者当恐怖分子实施袭击时保护犯罪现场的方法等。在本课程进行过程中，我们不会申明这些或那些技巧是反对恐怖主义的重要内容，因为这些问题并不在本课程的讨论范围之内。
在本课程中，我们将重点关注作为犯罪的恐怖主义，还将关注包括1373号决议在内的多项联合国安理会决议均申明要将“恐怖分子缉拿归案”的目标，我们将集中研究刑事司法系统所能提供的反应，尤其是该系统的动态和互动，刑事司法系统如何在反恐领域相互联系？是否还有其他方法以改善这种互动？
反恐怖主义普遍法律制度是由国际社会历经四载而建立起来的一套法律规范，该制度提供了通过一大批刑事司法机制以解决严重犯罪的框架，该制度建立的前提是：恐怖行为的实施者必须由其国籍国进行审判，或者被引渡到愿意审判该人员的国家，这就是著名的“不引渡即起诉”原则，该原则的目标是通过拒绝为恐怖分子及资助和支持恐怖分子的人提供避风港，从而使恐怖分子及其相关人员在世界上无处藏身。
提请您关注反恐怖主义法律普遍制度为什么如此重要？这是因为执行反恐措施的法律机关属于主权国家独有的责任，而这些工作是通过国家政府官员和执法官员、检察官和法官的日常工作实现的。目前尚不存在任何国际特别法院有能力对飞行器或船只的劫持、以平民为目标的爆炸以及资助恐怖主义的行为进行起诉。可以在某些案件中启动国际刑事法庭的管辖权，但仅仅局限于诸如相当于种族灭绝、战争罪或反人类罪等行为。总之，迄今为止，上述犯罪行为还从未发生过。历经数载而建立起来的针对这些犯罪行为的法律文书只能在国家立法中付诸实施，这些国家立法将设立的罪行归罪，并在国内法庭建立适合的管辖权，同时授权给国际文书中规定的合作机制。
最后，还要谈谈为何全球层面的反恐已经成为当今世界头等重要的大事，事实上，其原因已由前联合国秘书长科菲•安南进行了总结：
恐怖主义攻击了一切联合国所维护支持的理念的核心，它是对民主、法规、人权和稳定的全球性威胁，全球化使我们意识到了全球共同努力对抗恐怖主义的所有形式及其表现的无比重要性。(联合国, 2001, p. iv)
安南先生的陈述引入了经常出现在反恐论述中的几个概念：民主、法规、人权和全球化。只有当反对恐怖主义的政策和策略考虑到国际承诺在更广泛网络里具有的影响以及各国在这些领域所承担的义务时，这些政策和策略才能被认为是严肃认真的。对反恐国际公约的分析证明，一个国家的反恐反应——不管是采取国会的法案形式，还是作出引渡恐怖分子嫌疑人的决定，或者其他任何形式——都不应该被“割裂开来”。这意味着，无论是针对恐怖主义的一般形式还是特殊表现形式，防止或反对恐怖主义的特殊目标必须综合考虑来自于各种国际法律资源的因素和目的，虽然这是在反恐工作中最困难的方面，但是我们坚持认为，这也最有趣味的一个方面，我们将在最后一课作详细阐述。
练习 1
请重点关注安南先生陈述所涉及的每个概念（即，民主、法规、人权和全球化）并思考:
恐怖主义如何影响上述概念;
恐怖分子如何利用这些概念以作为其自身的优势.
(请独立完成本练习，记录下你的调查发现以便将来参考).
1.3 资料
本课程所需的大部分阅读和参考资料均可通过网络链接获得，请您常备一份贵国的宪法和刑事立法的文本，当您完成所建议的练习时，您将会频繁地参考这些资料。
最后，我们要指出，本课程的教学资料是全球反恐计划中的一项培训工具，该计划由联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室的预防恐怖主义处管理。在此计划的框架中还建立了其他工具，如反恐怖主义普遍法律制度立法指南，这些资料在联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室网页上可以查阅到，该网页还提供更多的相关信息，同时包括一些在此并未充分讨论到的法律问题。
参考资料清单
联合国. (2001). 有关预防和制止国际恐怖主义的国际文书. 纽约: 联合国.
| English to Chinese: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CRIMINAL MATTERS: A KEY TOOL IN THE FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM Unit 1
General field: Law/Patents | Source text - English
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CRIMINAL MATTERS:
A KEY TOOL IN THE FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM
Unit 1: Introduction
In today’s context of globalization, terrorism knows no borders. Criminals are carrying out their illicit activities by moving from one State to another or operating on several national territories. Thus, in an increasingly interdependent world, no country alone can deal effectively with terrorism. Therefore, cooperation between States to prevent and suppress acts of terrorism is crucial today. The ability of States to provide promptly assistance to each other is no longer an option but an absolute necessity in order to effectively address the terrorist threat.
The United Nations Organization and the International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL are at the forefront of the international action against terrorism. They have joined forces to provide Member States with technical assistance for strengthening police and judicial cooperation against terrorism, particularly by training law enforcement and criminal justice officers in the implementation of the universal legal instruments against terrorism and the effective and concrete use of cooperation mechanisms. Therefore, the course provided by INTERPOL and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) will mainly focus on international cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism.
1.1 What does this course aim to achieve?
This course aims to strengthen cooperation by providing information and developing the skills of practitioners in order to encourage and facilitate the use of the international cooperation mechanisms. These mechanisms are embodied in the 16 treaties adopted within the UN between 1963 and 2005 and in a number of UN Security Council resolutions.
International cooperation relating to counter-terrorism is a wide concept that involves several disciplines and various actors (law enforcement and criminal justice officers, military personnel, intelligence services, etc) pursuing different institutional objectives (such as “national security” and “law enforcement”). This cooperation adopts several forms (exchange of information, transfer of equipment, training, surrender of suspects, etc.). On the international level, there are different types of cooperation pursuing different objectives. In this course, we will focus on police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism, i.e. international cooperation in criminal matters with a view to brining to justice the perpetrators of terrorist acts.
What makes international cooperation so essential? This instrument is crucial today due to the transnational dimension of terrorism which is enhanced by globalization and a greater mobility of persons and goods. As national boundaries become increasingly meaningless to criminals, the need for international cooperation is more important than ever before. This need to strengthen interstate cooperation has thus been clearly underlined by the United Nations General Assembly:
“The acts, methods and practices of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations are activities aimed at the destruction of human rights, fundamental freedoms and democracy, threatening territorial integrity, security of States and destabilizing legitimately constituted Governments. The international community should take the necessary steps to enhance cooperation to prevent and combat terrorism.” (The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy adopted by the General Assembly under resolution 60/288)
Nevertheless, no-one can deny that, today, international cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism constitutes a major challenge to Member States. In practice, this cooperation encounters several difficulties because:
• the suspects, victims, evidence, witnesses, experts or proceeds from crime rarely fall under the jurisdiction of the country;
• the differences between the legal and judicial systems hinder the cooperation process;
• the lack of communication and coordination between the different institutions makes any kind of assistance unavailing;
• the respect for national sovereignties is sometimes a major obstacle.
Therefore, there should be coordinated national strategies to overcome the legislative differences and disparities between Member States and make international cooperation in criminal matters faster and more effective.
Yet, the implementation of these counter-terrorism measures falls under the sole responsibility of sovereign States, and more particularly under their law enforcement services. In fact, there is no international court to date that is competent to prosecute a person for high-jacking a vessel or an aircraft or for perpetrating a bomb-attack against civilians or organizing terrorist acts. Though, some cases fall under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court in matters relating to war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. Therefore, it is mainly national courts that bring the offenders to justice, in accordance with national legislations and the universal legal instruments against terrorism.
Consequently, it is essential that professionals in the relevant services know the Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism and the relevant tools needed to achieve a better cooperation and a more effective fight against terrorism.
1.2 What is the content of this course?
To achieve this aim, the course adopts a didactic approach consisting in thoroughly examining the range of existing mechanisms and tools for cooperation. The course:
• introduces the United Nations and INTERPOL institutional frameworks against terrorism;
• familiarizes participants with the requirements of the universal legal framework against terrorism and measures to prevent acts of terrorism;
• provides a didactic and dynamic analysis of the fundamental mechanisms of interstate cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism, particularly the exchange of information, mutual legal assistance and extradition;
• develops specialized expertise for a concrete and effective use of the main legal tools for cooperation;
• sensitizes the participants to the role of the United Nations and INTERPOL with regard to counter-terrorism, as well as the international standards and norms, regional arrangements and national obligations relative to counter-terrorism legislation and cooperation.
The course consists of 5 units:
Unit 1: Introduction
Unit 2: Measures to prevent terrorist acts
Unit 3: Exchange of police information
Unit 4: Mutual legal assistance in criminal matters
Unit 5: Search for, and extradition of terrorists
At the end of this course, you shall be able to discuss the following questions:
• Which UN and INTERPOL bodies are involved in counter-terrorism?
• What are the characteristics and role of the universal legal framework against terrorism?
• Which legal mechanisms are offered by the universal conventions against terrorism with a view to facilitating international cooperation in criminal matters?
• How do major cooperation measures (mutual legal assistance and extradition) function and how are they implemented?
• Which issues and challenges face the exchange of information?
• What are the practical counter-terrorism tools provided by INTERPOL to Member States?
Activity 1
First, we would like to make you react to the following statements. Please make note of your findings and comments.
- There can be no effective cooperation against terrorism in the absence of a universal definition of terrorism.
- Police cooperation is informal whereas judicial cooperation is formal.
- The exchange of information cannot expand beyond a bilateral State-to-State level.
- Traditional police powers are inappropriate for counter-terrorism.
- No cooperation can be made with a country which has a different legal system.
- We cannot respond positively to a mutual legal assistance request in the absence of a bilateral mutual legal assistance treaty between the requesting and the requested State..
- The complexity of the extradition and mutual legal assistance procedures and the difficulty to draft the relevant requests render international cooperation through the official procedures and channels impossible. Therefore, it is preferable to favour other informal forms of transfer.
These statements highlight some of the most controversial aspects of international cooperation against terrorism and express several false ideas.
Please return to these statements at the end of your course and write down any possible changes in your ideas.
(Please complete this activity on your own, making note of your findings for future reference).
This course does not aim to provide easy answers as the issues related to international cooperation in criminal matters are often complicated and controversial. Nevertheless, we are convinced that it is necessary to establish essential guidance for all those involved with counter-terrorism and international cooperation. Therefore, this course aims to clarify as much as possible the different legal concepts and issues which are often used for political purposes.
Before examining the different tools of international cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism, it is essential to introduce the United Nations and INTERPOL institutional framework for action against terrorism as well as the universal legal framework against terrorism. Understanding this is essential in order to have a clear idea of the different cooperation mechanisms which will be discussed in units 2 and 5.
Sources
1.3.1 Overview of the role of the UN and INTERPOL
A. The UN
I. Mandate
The United Nations is at the forefront of the international action against terrorism. In the framework of its mandate and expertise in different fields related to security, development and international cooperation, the UN has been involved in counter-terrorism and contributes to almost every aspect of it. Because terrorism is a transnational phenomenon, the global reach of the UN and its multilateral tools allow to provide a universally-accepted legal response to terrorism.. The UN system consists of a number of different organs, entities and specialized agencies with differing characters, powers and mandates.
The UN – General presentation
(Pop-up box No.1)
The United Nations is an international organization which came into being with the entry into force, on 24 October 1946, of the Charter of the United Nations, a multilateral treaty serving as a “Constitution” of the UN. Currently, the Organization comprises 192 Member States.
Article 1 of the UN Charter lays down the objectives pursued by the Organization, which include:
• the maintenance of peace and security;
• the achievement of international cooperation in solving various problems of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian character.
As a problem of social character, terrorism is one of the issues for which the UN was created. Although we will thoroughly discuss this issue later, we would like stress that the UN Security Council has considered terrorism as being one of the threats to peace and security that requires a legal response at the international level.
II. The bodies directly involved in counter-terrorism activities
a. The UN General Assembly
The UNGA has been playing an important role in establishing an international legal framework against terrorism and encouraging governments to work together more closely to address this threat. In this regard, the UNGA has adopted a series of resolutions relating to terrorism. These resolutions are authoritative recommendations even if they are not legally binding. A turning point in the history of the UN was marked in 1994 when the UNGA considered terrorist acts as “criminal and unjustifiable, wherever and by whomever committed... whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them”.
More recently, on 8 September 2006, the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy was adopted. This Strategy consists of a UNGA resolution and an annexed Plan of Action and represents a unique global instrument that nurtures the hope of enhancing national, regional and international efforts to counter terrorism. This is the first time that all Member States have agreed to a common strategic approach to fight terrorism by resolving to take practical steps individually and collectively to prevent and combat this issue. The Strategy encourages other international organizations, such as INTERPOL, to support its implementation and calls for the United Nations to enhance its cooperation with the international Criminal Police Organization in the framework of their common action against terrorism.
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video: interview 1)
Mr Jean-Paul Laborde (Former Chief, Terrorism Prevention Branch, UNODC) speaks about the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.
[Insert video clip “UNODC 2”]
Activity 2
Can you identify the provisions of concern and relevance to international cooperation contained in the Plan of Action annexed to the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy?
(Please complete this activity on your own, making note of your findings for future reference.)
The UNGA consists of a number of subsidiary bodies such as committees composed of all States or a group of States which are elected to serve as a body. The Third Committee dealing with social and humanitarian affairs and human rights issues and the Sixth Committee which deals with international legal matters are directly involved in counter-terrorism.
b. The UN Security Council
Under the Charter, the main functions and powers of the SC concern the maintenance of international peace and security. In this context, the UNSC may enact resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter in the event of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression. The adoption of resolutions under Chapter VII enables the SC to take sanctions involving or not the use of armed force (under Articles 41 and 42) against States in case of violations. With the adoption of resolution 1373 (2001), the SC drew terrorism and terrorist acts into the realm of threats against peace and security.
With a view to implementing resolutions relating to terrorism, the UNSC has established three Committees, each of them consisting of its 15 members. Under this regime, States are expected to submit reports in which they describe the measures taken to implement the various resolutions:
i. Al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Committee (1267 Committee)
Established pursuant to resolution 1267 (1999) and strengthened by subsequent resolutions, the sanctions regime concerns individuals and entities associated with Al-Qaeda, Usama bin Laden and/or the Taliban, wherever located. The sanctions (freezing of funds, travel ban, arms embargo) are imposed on those groups and individuals specifically mentioned in the Consolidated List maintained by the Sanctions Committee (the sanctions regime will be discussed in detail in Unit 2).
ii. Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC)
Established pursuant to resolution 1373 (2001) which requires States to take a number of measures to prevent terrorist activities and to criminalize various forms of terrorist acts, the Counter-Terrorism Committee facilitates the provision of capacity building assistance to help States counter terrorism on their national territory and ensures the implementation of SC resolution 1373. It has also compiled an international directory for best practices, codes and standards of implementation. It is assisted by a Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED) established pursuant to SC resolution 1535 (2004).
iii. 1540 Committee
Established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004), this Committee watches member States’ compliance with a resolution aimed at preventing weapons of mass destruction from getting into the hands of non-state actors such as terrorist groups. The 1540 Committee is assisted by an expert group.
c. The Secretariat
The Secretariat is the executive body of the decisions rendered by the General Assembly and the Security Council. It also fulfills duties entrusted to it by the UN Economic and Social Council. The Secretary-General has the power to “bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security” (see UN Charter, Articles 97 and 99).
Through its Office of Legal Affairs, the Secretariat has provided secretarial services for the drafting and adoption of various counter-terrorism conventions and it is currently participating in negotiations for a comprehensive convention on terrorism (see unit 3).
A key assistance provider within the Secretariat is the Vienna-based United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) which deals with issues pertaining to international terrorism and related to international cooperation. In 2002, the UNGA approved an expanded programme of activities for the Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB) which belongs to the UNODC. The Global Counter Terrorism Strategy acknowledges the role of UNODC/TPB by encouraging “the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, including its Terrorism Prevention Branch, to enhance, in close consultation with the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee and its Executive Directorate, its provision of technical assistance to States, upon request, to facilitate the implementation of the international conventions and protocols related to the prevention and suppression of terrorism and relevant United Nations resolutions”(part III, paragraph 7).
Within the Secretariat, the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force was established in July 2005. It is a coordinating and information-sharing body that brings together numerous entities and organizations dealing with counter-terrorism within the UN (e.g. UNODC). It serves as a forum of discussion for strategic issues and ensures a coherent action across the UN.
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video: interview 2)
Mr Jean-Paul Laborde (Former Chief, Terrorism Prevention Branch, UNODC) speaks about the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force.
[Insert video clip “UNODC 4”]
d. The International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN (article 91 of the UN Charter). The Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) is annexed to the UN Charter and forms an integral part of it. Even if all Member States are parties to the Statute, consenting to the jurisdiction of the ICJ is necessary before these could be asked to submit disputes to it. The ICJ has issued a number of decisions with direct bearing on the development and interpretation of the international legal framework against terrorism.
More information on the International Court of Justice…
(Pop-up box No.2)
The ICJ has contentious jurisdiction applying only to disputes between States which have accepted that jurisdiction. It cannot deal with disputes involving individuals or non-State entities. Judgments rendered by the ICJ in contentious cases are binding on the parties thereto, as provided by article 59 of Statute of the ICJ.
The ICJ also has an advisory jurisdiction which can only be sought by UN organs and specialized agencies. States and individuals cannot request advisory opinions.
The Security Council and General Assembly may seek advisory opinions on “any legal question” while other UN organs and specialized agencies may only seek advisory opinions on “legal questions arising within the scope of their activities” (see UN Charter, article 96 (1) and (2)) and in conformity with specific rules. Advisory opinions are non-binding but provide weighty legal authority on questions of international law.
The ICJ has issued a number of decisions with direct bearing on the development and interpretation of the international legal framework against terrorism. Have a look at the following judgments:
• Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya vs. The United States of America)
• Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua; (Nicaragua vs. The United States of America)
• United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (The United States of America vs. Iran).
The last two judgments have established interesting precedents for the creation of rules regarding the responsibility of the State: in which case can an act committed by an individual be attributed to the State as a legal entity and make it liable? This question is relevant in determining the extent of the diplomatic immunities granted to certain categories of people. We will return to this matter in unit 3.
B. INTERPOL
The International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL was created in 1923 and comprises 188 member countries. It is an intergovernmental organization which aims « to ensure and promote the widest possible mutual assistance between all criminal police authorities. » (Article 2, INTERPOL Constitution).
INTERPOL is the world’s largest international police organization. It plays a major role and works hand in hand with States to tackle terrorism. The Organization provides concrete operational assistance to national services and authorities in charge of preventing and combating terrorism, as well as to various international organizations. In addition to the structure and the mechanisms of operational assistance implemented by INTERPOL, what distinguishes the organization is the response it provides to terrorist threats and the guarantees it offers to member States to tackle this issue.
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video: interview 3)
Mr Joël Sollier, Magistrate, Director of Legal Affairs at Interpol and former Councilor at the UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee, highlights the importance of Interpol’s tools in counter-terrorism.
[Insert video clip“ INTERPOL 1”]
I. INTERPOL’s observation
Relying on its expertise in counter-terrorism and international crime, INTERPOL has drawn up the main characteristics of terrorist threats. Even if this type of crime requires an international response, the traditional police tools remain of high importance. Besides, a wider exchange of information and a greater awareness of States are both essential for the fight against terrorism to be successful.
a. The need for an international response to terrorist threats
INTERPOL is convinced that only a concerted international response can help counter terrorism. Since 1934, the Organization has actively engaged in drafting the first International Convention for the Prevention and Suppression of Terrorism. Since then, the Organization has observed the important evolution of this crime and has not ceased to remind the different actors on the international scene of the importance of an international response to terrorism.
For instance, this concern is expressed in two resolutions by INTERPOL’s General Assembly: resolution No AGN/52/RES/9 - Terrorism (Cannes, 1983), and resolution No AGN/67/RES/12 known as “the Cairo declaration against terrorism of 1998”.
Through its General Assembly, the Organization has repetitively sensitized its member countries to the effectiveness of a coordinated action against terrorism. A few days after 9/11 terrorist attacks, INTERPOL reiterated during its 70th General Assembly its long commitment in the fight against terrorism and called for an “enhanced international police and judicial collaboration to tackle terrorism and organized crime more effectively, for example by exploring all opportunities to co-ordinate legal, judicial and operational approaches” (resolution on Terrorist attack of 11 September 2001). This new terrorist attack underlines the global aspect of the threat and shows that every country is concerned, as a victim of such acts or as a base or transfer place for terrorist groups.
No country can effectively fight terrorism alone. The only response is common action involving all countries and consisting in a global strategy based on existing international cooperation tools. This strategy should obviously not be limited to countries. It should also involve international organizations (resolution No AG-2005-RES-05 The United Nations Security Council's request to Interpol to assist the UN's anti-terrorism fight). Hence, INTERPOL has made several cooperation agreements (resolution No AG-2006-RES-22 The United Nations Security Council’s request to increase co-operation between the United Nations and Interpol in order to provide the Council’s sanctions committees with better tools to fulfill their mandates more effectively) inviting various international and intergovernmental organizations to join this action.
Besides the implementation and reinforcement of all the existing international cooperation instruments in criminal matters, terrorist threats also require the use of all means and traditional police tools.
b. The relevance of traditional police tools in the fight against terrorism
INTERPOL is convinced that, even if terrorism requires specific tools, it can only be effectively tackled if traditional police tools are used. Because they are modern, simple, flexible and especially available to all police forces throughout the world, INTERPOL’s tools are particularly suitable to fight against terrorism.
Connecting police. As national boundaries become increasingly meaningless to criminals, effective police communication across borders has been more important than ever. Thanks to the development of its communication system which enables National Central Bureaus (NCBs) of its 188 member countries to exchange information securely and rapidly, INTERPOL has made of its electronic communications network, an essential tool for police cooperation. It is particularly through this network that INTERPOL issues international wanted notices, called INTERPOL notices, which mostly concern terrorists.
Exploiting information. INTERPOL provides all its member countries with a wide range of databases which they can both feed and access directly and instantly. Access to this police information often proves to be decisive in terrorism investigations because it allows to connect seemingly unrelated pieces of data. There is a wide range of examples of stolen motor vehicles or travel documents that served to prepare for an attack or arrange for the escape of a fugitive terrorist.
Providing operational support. Training, intervening in places where terrorist attacks are committed and exploiting police information contained in INTERPOL databases through criminal analysis are some of the services offered by the Organization to its members. INTERPOL also operates a 24-hour Command and Co-ordination Centre, available 7 days a week, in the Organization’s 4 official languages (Arabic, French, English and Spanish) as well as response teams and experts in criminal analysis and police training (e.g. police training on bio-terrorism). This gives police officers throughout the world an essential operational and technical support.
While several UN General Assembly resolutions underlined and reiterated the effectiveness of these police tools in the fight against terrorism, the UNGA became aware, since 1984, that terrorism was a phenomenon linked to other forms of crime. The Organization has then decided to set up a “a common international strategy for taking all appropriate prevention, protection, surveillance, and law enforcement measures, and to prepare concrete proposals for more effective action in combating terrorism, its funding and support networks and its pernicious effects on international peace and security”. Therefore, INTERPOL’s fight against terrorism is global and comprises other types of crime such as organized crime, crimes of stolen passports and stolen motor vehicles, arm trafficking or internet activities (AG-2005-RES-10 - Addressing Internet activities supporting terrorism) which provide support and finance terrorism (AGN/68/RES/2 – The financing of terrorism (Seoul 1999).
At the same time, INTERPOL has prioritized the issue of terrorism by putting into place a series of initiatives and specific counter-terrorism tools. For instance, a counter-terrorism programme was developed to increase the exchange of information on terrorist groups, help member countries in case of terrorist attacks or in the course of investigations, by providing analytical, investigative and database support services. This programme was also developed with a view to assisting member countries through training and analysis in order to enhance their capacities for rapid detection and counter-terrorism. Despite the development and the provision of these tools, exchange of information in terrorism-related matters is still inadequate today.
c. An inadequate exchange of information on terrorism
In the 1998 Cairo declaration against terrorism, INTERPOL’s General Assembly reminded member countries of the principle of international solidarity that brings them together in the fight against terrorism. “It is necessary for all the Organization's members to undertake to observe the principle of international solidarity in the fight against terrorism, the application of which - subject to the constitutional principles of each member country - should make it possible to prevent their territories being used for the preparation, perpetration, or financing of acts of terrorism endangering the peace and security of other countries.”
This declaration reconfirmed the principle of “constant and active” cooperation required from member countries in accordance with article 31 of the Organization’s Constitution calling them to “do all within their power which is compatible with the legislations of their countries to participate diligently in its activities.” In practice, despite its numerous databases and its 188 member countries, INTERPOL is confronted, like many other institutions, with the lack of cooperation between States in matters relating to terrorism, be it the sharing of information or the limited use of operational police tools. This lack of cooperation is partly caused by a climate of mistrust owing to strong diplomatic tensions and a reluctance to share a large amount of information considered as sensitive.
Yet, we very often tend to forget that cooperation against terrorism requires a sharing of non sensitive information and that this information, as reiterated by the General Assembly in its recent resolution (AG-2006-RES-08 - The need to alert the global law enforcement community about dangerous escaped criminals, including terrorists), can help maintain national security. INTERPOL programmes aim to promote the idea that it is possible to share information on terrorism on a wider scale and that this wider information-sharing provides for a more effective cooperation between States and a growing mutual trust.
The lack of cooperation is also caused by skill gaps and sometimes by the impossibility to have access to police cooperation technologies. INTERPOL considers that if a country is defenseless against terrorist threats, the international community as a whole becomes so. The Organization has therefore made a significant effort to connect all member countries to its secure communications network.
Activity 3
Is terrorism, in your view, an issue of national or international security?
(Please carry out this activity and briefly write your results in the discussion forum of this unit. Read the comments of the other participants and discuss the common views and the differences in your answers.)
II. Guarantees offered by INTERPOL
While INTERPOL helps facilitate international police cooperation by providing support and assistance to all the services, organizations and authorities engaged in preventing and combating crime, the Organization also works on the strengthening of national capacity against terrorism while adhering to national legal systems and international law.
a. A universal organization
INTERPOL is an international and universal organization owing to the number of its members (188) and its mandate thanks to which it plays a large role on the international scene. According to article 2 of its Constitution, INTERPOL aims to:
• “ensure and promote the widest possible mutual assistance between all criminal police authorities within the limits of the laws existing in the different countries and in the spirit of the 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights'”
• “establish and develop all institutions likely to contribute effectively to the prevention and suppression of ordinary law crimes.”
This mandate fulfills 4 imperatives:
• the respect of national legislations (article.2(2))
• the respect of Human Rights (article.2(2))
• the respect of the independence and neutrality of the Organization (article.3)
• the obligation for members to cooperate actively and constantly in the activities of the Organization (article 31).
In terms of police cooperation, this mandate is wide with regard to judicial matters since, under several international conventions, INTERPOL serves as a network for the transmission of requests for mutual legal assistance and matters relating to extradition. This role will be discussed in detail in units 4 and 5
b. A neutral and independent organization
Neutrality and independence of INTERPOL’s organs come first in the core principles that guide the Organization’s action. According to article 3 of INTERPOL’s Constitution, “it is strictly forbidden for the Organization to undertake any intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character”. The Organization is aware that its neutrality and independence guarantee, in part, the legitimacy of its action and strongly ensures the acknowledgement and respect of these principles.
The principle of neutrality of INTERPOL was first enunciated in 1948 and has several times been reaffirmed by the Organization’s General Assembly (AG-2004-RES-18 - Interim guidance to the General Secretariat in cases of membership in a terrorist organization) and (AG-2006-RES-04 - Statement to Reaffirm the Independence and political Neutrality of Interpol). Since the perpetrators of terrorist attacks often point to political and religious reasons, terrorism issues represent one of the major challenges facing this principle of neutrality. Nevertheless, as we will see in the next units, UN Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) and some other counter-terrorism universal instruments reject political reasons as grounds for perpetrating terrorist attacks. Terrorism can be addressed by INTERPOL as long as requests are accompanied by detailed descriptions of facts. INTERPOL particularly examines the cases where information is not clear in this regard and where the guarantees provided are not sufficient.
The principle of independence of the Organization was set forth in article 30 of INTERPOL’s Constitution in 1956. “In the exercise of their duties, the Secretary General and the staff shall neither solicit nor accept instructions from any government or authority outside the Organization. They shall abstain from any action which might be prejudicial to their international task. Each Member of the Organization shall undertake to respect the exclusively international character of the duties of the Secretary General and the staff, and abstain from influencing them in the discharge of their duties.” Therefore, the principle of independence applies to member countries as well as to other institutions, and represents an extra guarantee in matters relating to counter-terrorism
c. An organization for security
As an organization that promotes international police cooperation, INTERPOL is evidently an organization for security. It gives special attention to the processing of information passing through its network, particularly in matters relating to terrorism, and ensures that the security of information is guaranteed both technically and legally.
Technical security. The establishment of a communications system enabling a secure exchange of police information and restricting access to databases is of high importance to the Organization. Additionally, INTERPOL has a state-of-the-art technology which uses the most recent programs and guarantees the security of its police information system.
Legal security. The Organization has also its own rules on the processing of police information, guaranteeing individuals' rights and respecting national legislations. These rules offer a secure legal basis for information-sharing via INTERPOL and feature specific provisions regarding the confidentiality of information (The rules on the processing of information for the purposes of international police cooperation).
Watch and listen to the experts
(Video: interview 4)
Mr Olivier Fourès (legal counselor at the INTERPOL's Office of Legal Affairs) explains a few details regarding INTERPOL’s counter-terrorism framework.
[Insert video clip “INTERPOL 13“ ]
1.3.2 Overview of the Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism
The Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism provides a legal framework to prosecute serious offences relating to terrorism through a wide range of criminal justice mechanisms. Its main objective is to ensure that those who organized, committed or took part in terrorist activities are brought to justice. This legal regime will be discussed in the various units.
In this part of the first unit, we will lay down the basis and legal knowledge needed to understand the rest of this course. In the next units, we will examine the requirements posed by the conventions and UN Security Council resolutions against terrorism (unit 2) and the functioning of different cooperation tools (units 3, 4, and 5).
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video: interview 5)
Mr Jean-Paul Laborde, Special Advisor to the Under-Secretary-General and former Head of the Terrorism Prevention Branch at the UNODC, explains the importance for practitioners to know the Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism.
[Insert video clip “UNODC 1”]
A. The meaning of “Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism”?
Short of being a legally defined notion, the expression “Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism” is used as a “catch-all” formula to refer to a set of instruments, adopted at the global level, outlining a series of legally binding standards for States to prevent and counter international terrorism. These instruments take the form of treaties and UN Security Council resolutions, and have been developed over several years in an incremental manner.
To the extent that the Universal Legal Regime against Terrorism comprises international instruments requesting States to criminalize certain offences and providing inter-state cooperation mechanisms to bring alleged offenders to justice, it is an integral part of a broader legal area known as International Criminal Law (ICL). The ultimate goal of the ICL is to ensure that individuals suspected of committing international offences are brought to justice.
B. The fundamental elements of “The Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism”
There are currently 16 universal conventions and protocols, adopted over a time-span of more than 40 years, which relate directly to the prevention and suppression of terrorism. These agreements embody a “sectoral” or incremental approach to terrorism, as each one deals with different specific criminal conducts. The sectoral approach is the direct result of the (so far) impossible task of defining terrorism within a single globally-accepted and legally-binding instrument. For instance, the Achille Lauro incident triggered the negotiations for the 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) issued a series of technical assistance tools, particularly legislative guides, which introduce these instruments.
Most of the existing conventions and protocols on terrorism are based on a common structure. Generally, they:
• describe a particular conduct as an offence;
• require States Parties to establish such conduct as a criminal offence under their domestic law;
• establish jurisdictional grounds for States Parties to prosecute the described offence;
• establish the aut dedere, aut judicare principle; and
• form the legal grounds for cooperation between States Parties for extradition and mutual legal assistance purposes regarding the offences described in them.
At this stage, we should first start by examining the different offences set forth in the conventions. One of the major obstacles to the implementation of international cooperation in criminal matters relating to counter-terrorism is certainly the lack of consistency in the classification of criminal offences by States Parties. This lack of approximation in criminal offences is the cause for several cooperation requests to be turned down due to the double incrimination requirement. It is therefore important to know these differences. Please click on this link to analyze the constituent elements of these offences and carry out the relevant activities.
Additionally, every convention deals with the technical and legal issues related to the specific manifestation of terrorism described in it (e.g. powers of aircraft commanders, the return of seized nuclear material, boarding of vessels, etc.).
Watch and listen to the experts…
(Video: interview 6)
Mr Chris Young (Head of the International Maritime Law and Technical Co-operation Section of the International Maritime Organization) explains the main objectives and characteristics of the universal conventions relating to maritime terrorism.
[Insert video clip “UNODC 9”]
C. The establishment of jurisdiction
Once the acts described in the universal conventions and protocols have been established as criminal offences under the domestic law of each State, the question would arise as to which State is competent to prosecute the alleged offenders. Each State has the obligation to determine the scope of its jurisdiction in matters relating to terrorism. The direct goal of the conventions and protocols is to ensure that as many States Parties as possible are competent to prosecute in order to avoid the creation of “havens” for alleged terrorists.
I. How should States Parties establish their jurisdiction?
There are four systems to determine the scope of application of the law geographically.
• First, the most classical one is the territoriality principle according to which the applicable criminal law is the one of the country where the offence was committed, regardless of the nationality of the offender or the victim. The logic of this principle is that a sovereign State has to enforce order on its territory and punish the offenders. Counter-terrorism conventions oblige States to establish their jurisdiction over the offences committed on their territory or on board vessels and aircrafts registered in them, in accordance with their legislation. As States could not tolerate the use of their territory for terrorist purposes, they have to establish their territorial jurisdiction regarding terrorist acts committed on their land territory and on their maritime and air space.
• Second, there is a system of personal jurisdiction whereby the offence falls under the domestic law of the offender (active personality) or that of the victim (passive personality). According to counter-terrorism conventions, States should establish their active personal jurisdiction and be therefore capable of prosecuting their nationals who are suspected of committing certain offences outside their boundaries. In some cases, States should also establish their passive personal jurisdiction so that the State of which the victim is national is capable of prosecuting the offender. Finally, some conventions establish an optional criterion of jurisdiction in case the alleged offender is stateless.
• Third, in case of real jurisdiction, only the fundamental interests of the injured State are taken into account. The latter acquires jurisdiction regardless of the place of commission or nationality of the perpetrators in the event of an attack against its interests. This criterion of jurisdiction is considered as optional by the counter-terrorism conventions.
• Fourth and last, there is the system of universal jurisdiction whereby a State claims jurisdiction over a specific offence, regardless of the place of commission, nationality of the victim and the offender or damage suffered by the State (this was for instance the case of Belgium with regard to crimes against humanity). This system is not described as a whole in the conventions but only exists in a hybrid form where the State has to exercise its jurisdiction if the offender is present on its territory or if it does not extradite them in accordance with the aut dedere, aut judicare principle.
II. What are the characteristics of the aut dedere aut judicare principle?
The Universal Legal Framework against Terrorism is based on the principle that perpetrators of terrorist acts should be either brought to justice by their country or handed over to another State for prosection. This principle which aims at making our world inhospitable for terrorists by denying them any safe havens is known under the Latin formula “aut dedere, aut judicare” which translates to “extradite or prosecute” (“prosecuting” in the sense of “bringing to justice”, that is to say, referring the case to the competent courts if the State does not extradite). It is set forth in resolution 1373 and in the universal instruments against terrorism. The principle provides for a “quasi-universal” jurisdiction if the alleged offender is present on the State’s territory and the latter does not have jurisdiction to prosecute them under its domestic jurisdiction rules, or if it does not extradite them. This principle will be discussed in detail in unit 5 dealing with extradition.
III. What if too many States have jurisdiction?
By ensuring that there is “no safe haven for terrorists”, the conventions may lead to a “positive conflict of jurisdiction” which results in too many States asserting their jurisdiction to prosecute. Without creating binding mechanisms to address this type of situations, some conventions, like the Financing Convention, encourage States Parties to consult with each other and coordinate their action in order to determine which State is in the best position to prosecute. Conventions do not say, however, how this coordination can be achieved and do not establish either, the criterion according to which the jurisdiction of one State prevails over that of another. This type of provision aims to offer a general framework for cooperation, giving States Parties ample room for maneuver.
Activity 4 – Mini Case study – The explosion of an Airbus A320
An Airbus A320 belonging to an Airline of State B and registered in this State B took off from State A towards State B. While flying over your State (State D), it exploded over a desert area. 170 passengers died as a result of the explosion. Nationals of States A and B were among the victims. Nationals of State C suspected of participating in the explosion of the airplane are present in your country.
Acting as a prosecutor in your country,
can you establish your jurisdiction to prosecute the perpetrators of the attack?
do you think other countries have an interest in establishing their jurisdiction? If so, which countries should do and what might be their interest?
what would you do if several countries established their jurisdiction?
can this act fall under the jurisdiction of the ICC?
(Please complete this activity on your own, making note of your findings for future reference.)
1.4 Conclusion
This unit introduced the institutions and global structures within which the universal legal regime against terrorism is developed as well as its fundamental elements. We gave special attention to provisions establishing offences in the relevant international treaties and stressed the need for countries to have the possibility to prosecute offences even when they are committed outside their boundaries. In this unit we have also described the context of international cooperation in matters relating to terrorism.
UNODC documents:
• Abi-Saab, G. (2004). The proper role of international law in combating terrorism. In Andrea Bianchi (ed). Enforcing international law norms against terrorism. Oxford: Hart Publishing, p. xii-iv.
• Arnold, R. (2004). The ICC as a new instrument for repressing terrorism. Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bassiouni, C. (2003). Introduction to international criminal law. Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bassiouni, C. (2001). International terrorism: Multilateral conventions (1937-2001). Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bantekas, I. and Nash, S. (2003). International criminal law. London: Cavendish. Partly available on Google Books at:
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=RYnyMesaNTMC&dq=Bantekas %26 Nash, International Criminal Law,&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=61SceY6CL8&sig=_DW_F4MQaE83YCK4vYX0tQRXO4g&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1.)
• Cassese, A. (2005). Public international law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Weigend T. (2006). The universal terrorist: The international community grappling with a definition. Journal of International Criminal Justice [online], 4(5), p. 912 to 932. available at:
http://jicj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/5/912?maxtoshow=&HITS=6&hits=6&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&fulltext=organized crime&andorexactfulltext=phrase&searchid=1&resourcetype=HWCIT.
• Guide for rapid and easy access to information relating to the universal instruments against terrorism.
PS: Most of the documentation you need for this course will be provided through Web pages. However, we encourage you to always have a copy of the Constitution and criminal law of your country, since you will often need them to complete some of the exercises. Finally, we would like to point out that the didactic material was developed as a training tool for the Global project against terrorism which is managed by the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the United Nations Office against Drugs and Crime. In the framework of this project, several other tools have been developed, such as the legislative guides for the implementation of the universal legal regime against terrorism. Please consult the documentation available on the UNODC website, where you will find further information on legal issues that are not covered in full here and more details of the themes discussed.
INTERPOL documents:
• AG-2006-RES-09 - Home-grown terrorists − al-Qaeda linked / al-Qaeda inspired terrorism.
• AGN/55/RES/3 - Co-operation in terrorist cases; Guide for NCBs and specialized services (Belgrade, 1986).
| Translation - Chinese
刑事事项方面的国际合作
——打击恐怖主义的重要工具
第一单元：导言
在当今全球化的背景下，恐怖主义已无国界，犯罪分子正从一国转移至另一国或在多个国家领土上实施非法活动。因此，在一个日益相互依赖的世界中，没有任何国家能够独立地、有效地打击恐怖主义；所以国家之间在预防和制止恐怖主义方面的合作在今天显得至关重要。为有效应对恐怖主义的威胁，国家之间快速互助的能力不再是一个选择，而成为绝对必要。
联合国组织和国际刑警组织均战斗在打击恐怖主义国际行为的最前沿，共同致力于为成员国提供技术帮助，以加强警方与司法在反恐领域的合作，特别是通过培训执法和刑事司法人员执行全球反恐法律文书以及具体有效运用合作机制的能力。因此，国际刑警组织和联合国毒品与犯罪问题办公室（UNODC）提供的培训课程将主要集中在与反恐相关的刑事事项的国际合作方面。
1.1 课程的目标
本培训课程旨在通过提供信息并提高法律从业人员的技能，从而鼓励并促进国际合作机制的运用，该合作机制在联合国1963年至2005年通过的16个条约以及数个联合国安理会决议中均有所表述。
反恐相关的国际合作是一个广泛的概念，涉及到多个领域以及各追求不同体制目标（例如“国家安全”和“执法”）的行动者（执法和刑事司法人员，军人，情报机构等），这种合作采用多种形式（信息交流、设备转让、培训以及对犯罪嫌疑人的移交等等）。在国际层面，合作类别多样，目标各不相同。在本培训课程中，我们将关注警方与反恐相关的刑事事项的司法合作，例如，旨在将恐怖分子绳之以法的国际刑事合作。
国际合作为何不可或缺？由于全球化现象以及人员和物品的流动性日益增加，大大加强了恐怖主义实施的范围，因此，该领域的国际合作至关重要。对犯罪分子而言，国界亦愈来愈不重要，因而国际合作具有了前所未有的重要性。联合国大会重点强调了增强国际合作的必要性：
“一切形式的恐怖主义行为、方法和做法及其表现，是企图破坏人权、基本的自由和民主、威胁领土完整、国家安全，颠覆合法设立政府的活动。国际社会应采取必要措施以加强合作，防止和打击恐怖主义” (根据60/288号决议，联合国大会通过联合国全球反恐战略)
然而，不可否认，在今天，与反恐相关的国际刑事合作是各成员国面临的主要挑战，这种合作在实际运用中遇到了很多困难，原因如下：
• 嫌疑人，受害者，证据，证人，专家或者犯罪活动都几乎不在一个国家的管辖之内；
• 法律和司法体系的差异阻碍了合作的进程；
• 各个机构之间缺乏交流与协调导致各种援助徒劳无益；
• 对国家主权的尊重有时反而成为绊脚石.
因此，必须制定协调一致的国家战略，以克服成员国的立法差异，使得国际刑事领域的合作更加快捷有效。
然而，反恐措施的实施属于主权国家的唯一责任，具体由各国执法部门负责。事实上，尽管国际刑事法庭管辖的一些案件涉及战争罪、种族灭绝或反人类罪，但迄今为止还没有一个国际法庭有能力对劫船或劫机分子、以及对平民实施炸弹袭击或组织恐怖行为的人进行起诉，因此，主要由各国家法院根据其国家立法和全球性反恐法律文书将罪犯绳之以法。
综上所述，相关领域专业人员必须了解反恐普遍法律制度和工具，这对于加强合作和有效打击恐怖主义极其重要。
1.2 培训的内容
为达到上述目标，本培训课程采取了循序渐进的教学方式，包括全面检验现有的合作机制与工具。本培训课程内容如下：
• 介绍联合国和国际刑警组织打击恐怖主义方面的体制框架；
• 使培训参与者熟悉打击恐怖主义普遍法律制度的要求和预防恐怖行为的措施；
• 提供国家间在反恐刑事领域基本合作机制的教学和动态的分析，特别是在信息交流、法律互助和引渡方面；
• 对主要合作法律工具的具体有效运用的专业技能进行强化；
• 使参与者了解联合国与国际刑警组织在打击恐怖主义方面的作用、国际规范和标准，同时了解区域性协议及反恐立法和合作方面的国家义务。
课程将包括5个单元：
第一单元：导言
第二单元： 预防恐怖主义行为的措施
第三单元：警方信息交流
第四单元：刑事领域的法律互助
第五单元：恐怖分子的追踪和引渡
在结束本课程的时候，您应该能够讨论下述问题：
• 有哪些联合国和国际刑警组织机构参与反恐？
• 反恐怖主义普遍法律制度有何特点及作用？
• 为了促进刑事领域的国际合作，全球性打击恐怖主义条约提供了哪些法律机制？
• 主要合作方法（法律互助和引渡）是如何发挥作用的？应如何实施？
• 信息交流面临的挑战和问题分别是什么？
• 国际刑警组织为成员国提供哪些实用的反恐工具？
练习1
首先，请对以下论述作出你的反应，写下您的调查和评论。
- 由于缺乏公认的恐怖主义的定义，所以不存在有效的反恐合作。
- 警方的合作是非正式的，而司法领域的合作是正式的。
-信息交流不能超出国与国的双边层面。
-传统的警方力量不能适合反恐。
- 无法与不同于本国法律系统的国家进行合作。
-由于缺乏请求国与接受请求国之间司法互助的双边协议，我们无法对司法协助的请求作出积极回应。
- 由于复杂的引渡和法律互助程序以及在请求起草方面的困难，使得经由官方程序和渠道的国际合作难以实现，因此，选择其他非正式的移交形式更为可取。
这些表述突出了在反恐领域中最具争议的问题，反映了错误的观点。
请在结束课程时再回顾这些表述，并记录下您观点改变的点滴。
(请单独完成这项练习，并记录下您的调查结果供将来参考)。
这次培训课程的目标并非提供简单的答案，因为国际刑事事项合作的相关问题通常既棘手又富有争议。然而，我们深信，为所有参与反恐和国际合作的人士制定基本指南十分必要。因此，本培训课程旨在尽可能地阐明常用于政治目的却并不相同的法律概念和各种问题。
在分析涉及反恐领域的国际刑事合作的不同工具之前，有必要向您介绍联合国与国际刑警组织执行反恐行动的机构设置以及打击恐怖主义的普遍法律框架，了解这些内容对于您理解将在2单元和5单元进行讨论的不同合作机制是必不可少的。
1.5 来源
1.5.1 联合国和国际刑警的职能概览
D. 联合国
III. 授权
联合国战斗在全球打击恐怖主义的最前沿，在安全、发展、国际合作等不同领域的任务和专业知识的框架内，联合国已经全面参与反恐，并在各个方面都做出了贡献。鉴于恐怖主义是一种跨国现象，联合国拥有的全球影响力及其多边途径，提供了针对恐怖主义的普遍接受的法律对策。联合国系统由不同的机构、实体和特殊部门组成，其特点、权力和任务均各有不同。
联合国—简介
(第一个弹出窗口)
1946年10月24日，作为联合国“宪法”的多边条约——联合国宪章开始生效，国际组织联合国宣告成立。目前，联合国拥有192 个成员国。
联合国宪章第一条确立了该组织的宗旨，包括：
• 维护国际和平与安全；进行国际合作，以解决经济 、社会、文化及有关人道主义性质的各类问题。
联合国成立的目的之一是应对恐怖主义——这一具有社会性质的问题。我们将在以后深入讨论这个问题，在此我们强调：联合国安全理事会已将恐怖主义列为和平与安全的威胁之一，并需要制定国际层面的法律政策。
IV. 直接参与反恐行动的机构
e. 联合国大会
联大在制定反恐国际法律框架和促进各国政府紧密合作以解决恐怖主义威胁中发挥了重要作用。就此而言，联大通过了一系列有关恐怖主义的决议，即使这些决议不具有法律约束力，却仍是具有权威性的建议。1994年，联大将恐怖行为定义为“不论在何地发生、由何人所为, 不管引用何种政治、哲学、意识形态、种族、人种、宗教或其他任何性质的考虑为其辩解，均为犯罪而不可辩护……”, 这成为了联合国历史的转折点。
近期，联合国全球反恐战略于2006年9月8日通过，包括联大决议和附加的行动计划，该战略构成了独一无二的全球工具，孕育着加强国家、地区和国际的反恐力量的希望。所有成员国均同意采纳对抗恐怖主义的共同战略方针，并决定单独地及共同地采取切实措施预防和打击恐怖主义，这在历史上尚属首次。该战略鼓励其他国际组织对其实施进行支持，例如国际刑警组织，并要求联合国加强与国际刑警组织在反恐共同行动框架中的合作。
专家连线
(视频: 采访1)
Jean-Paul Laborde 先生（前毒品和犯罪问题办公室预防恐怖主义处处长）谈联合国全球反恐战略。
[插入短片“UNODC 2”]
练习 2
您能否找出在联合国全球反恐战略行动计划中所包含的有关国际合作的条款和规定？
(请单独完成这项练习，并记录下您的调查结果以供将来参考)。
大会包括很多附属机构，如，由所有成员国组成的委员会，或通过选出的部分成员国组成一个机构。第三委员会负责处理社会、人道主义和人权问题，第六委员会则处理国际法律问题，这两个委员会均直接参与反恐。
f. 安全理事会
根据联合国宪章，联合国安全理事会的主要职责和权力与维护国际和平与安全相关。因此，一旦发生威胁和平、破坏和平或侵略的行为，安理会可依据联合国宪章第七章通过决议。第七章通过的决议使得安理会可以对违反宪章的国家采取诉诸武力或非武力的制裁（根据第41条和第42条）。第1373（2001）号决议通过后，安理会将恐怖主义和恐怖分子行为纳入了威胁和平与安全的范畴。
为了执行与恐怖主义相关的决议，安理会设立了三个委员会，各自均由15个成员国组成。在此体制中，成员国必须递交报告，详述为执行各个决议而采取的措施：
i. 制裁基地组织和塔利班委员会（1267 委员会）
制裁体系依据1267（1999）号决议建立并被此后通过决议而加强，制裁体系关注与塔利班、乌萨马•本•拉登和/或基地组织有联系的个人和实体，不管其身在何处，这些组织和个人均受到制裁（包括资产冻结、旅行禁令和武器禁运），特别是在制裁委员会汇总名单中提及的组织和个人。（制裁体系将在第二单元中详细讨论）。
ii. 反恐怖主义委员会(反恐委员会)
反恐怖主义委员会依据第1373（2001）号决议建立，该决议要求成员国采取多种措施预防恐怖主义行为，并将不同形式的恐怖主义行为判定为非法。反恐怖主义委员会对成员国提供协助，帮助各成员国增强对抗其境内恐怖主义行为的能力，确保第1373号决议的实施。该委员会还将实施的最佳范例、法规和标准汇编为国际目录。其工作由根据安理会第1535（2004）号决议创建的反恐怖主义委员会执行局协助。.
iii. 1540委员会
该委员会根据第1540（2004）号决议设立，负责监督各成员国是否遵守了防止非国家行动者尤其是恐怖主义组织不得持有大规模杀伤性武器的决议。一个专家小组正在协助1540委员会的工作。
g. 秘书处
秘书处是联合国大会和安全理事会决定的执行机构，同时也履行联合国经济和社会理事会委托的义务。 秘书长有权力“将其认为可能威胁国际和平及安全维护之任何事件，提请安全理事会注意” (参见联合国宪章第97 条和第99条)。
秘书处通过法律事务办公室对各种反恐条约的起草及通过提供秘书服务，目前，秘书处正在参与一个有关全面制止恐怖主义公约的讨论。（参见第三单元）
秘书处里提供帮助的重要部门是总部设在维也纳的联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，该办公室负责处理全球恐怖主义和国际合作的相关事项。2002年，联大批准了毒品和犯罪问题办公室下属的预防恐怖主义处的一项活动扩展计划。联合国全球反恐战略鼓励“联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室（包括预防恐怖主义处）与反恐怖主义委员会及其执行局进行密切磋商，根据请求加强为各成员国提供技术援助，促进各成员国执行防止和制止恐怖主义的相关国际公约及议定书和联合国的相关决议”，在此，预防恐怖主义处的作用得到了承认。（第三部分第七段）
2005年7月， 反恐任务执行工作组在秘书处设立，这是一个合作与信息共享的机构，汇集了众多在联合国内处理反恐问题的实体和组织（如联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室）。反恐任务执行工作组是一个讨论战略问题的平台，确保了联合国内部行动的一致性。
专家连线
(视频：采访2)
Jean-Paul Laborde先生（前毒品和犯罪问题办公室预防恐怖主义处处长）谈有关联合国全球反恐战略。
[插入短片“UNODC 4”]
h. 国际法院
国际法院是联合国的主要司法机构（联合国宪章第91条）。国际法院规约是联合国宪章的附件，也是其有机组成部分。虽然所有的联合国成员国都是规约的缔约方，但成员国在向国际法院提交纠纷之前，必须承认国际法院的管辖权。国际法院已经作出许多直接影响了国际反恐法律制度发展和解释的决定。
与国际法院相关的更多信息
(弹出窗口二)
国际法院的诉讼管辖权仅仅适用于已经承认其管辖权的国家之间的纠纷，但不能处理个人或非国家实体的纠纷。根据国际法院规约第59条，国际法院在具有争议的案件中所作出之决定对参与程序的当事方具有约束力。
国际法院的咨询管辖权仅适用于联合国机构或专门机构，成员国和个人不能向其寻求咨询意见。
安全理事会或联大就“所有法律问题”寻求国际法院的咨询意见，而其他联合国机构和专门机构只能就“其工作范围内出现的法律问题”寻求咨询意见(参见联合国宪章第96条第一，二款)，且需符合特殊规定。咨询意见不具有约束力，但在国际法问题方面具有很强的法律权威性。
国际法院已经作出很多直接影响了国际反恐法律制度发展和解释的决定。
以下的案例供您参考：
• 洛克比空难引起的1971年蒙特利尔公约的应用和解释问题（阿拉伯利比亚人民社会主义民众国诉美利坚合众国)；
• 在尼加拉瓜并针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事行动（尼加拉瓜诉美利坚合众国）；
• 美利坚合众国驻德黑兰外交和领事人员（美利坚合众国诉伊朗）。
最后两项决定为有关国家责任的规定的起草树立了有意义的先例：在什么情况下，个人行为可以归咎于具有法人地位的国家，并且追究该国的法律责任？ 此问题与决定授予某些人员类别的外交豁免权的范围等问题有关。我们将在第三单元继续探讨。
E. 国际刑警组织
国际刑警组织创建于1923年，由188个成员国组成。作为一个政府间组织，国际刑警组织致力于“确保并推进各刑事警察局之间最广泛的互相支援” (组织章程第二条).
作为全球最大的国际警察组织，国际刑警组织与各成员国携手共同打击恐怖主义，发挥着至关重要的作用。该组织对各成员国负责预防和打击恐怖主义的部门和机构以及各国际组织提供了切实的业务援助。国际刑警组织不仅拥有实施业务援助的机制和构架，还因其对恐怖主义威胁的反应及在反恐方面对成员国的承诺而独树一帜。
专家连线
(视频: 采访 3)
Joël Sollier 先生——地方执法官，国际刑警组织法律事务厅主任，前联合国安全理事会反恐委员会顾问——强调了国际刑警组织反恐工具的重要性。
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III. 国际刑警组织的观察
国际刑警组织依据其在反恐和国际犯罪方面的专业知识已经草拟了恐怖主义威胁的主要特征，尽管此类犯罪需要国际反应，传统警方工具仍极其重要。此外，更广泛的信息共享和更高的成员国意识，对成功打击恐怖主义不可或缺。
a. 面对恐怖主义威胁作出国际反应的必要性
国际刑警组织坚信只有同心协力的国际反应才能应对恐怖主义。该组织从1934年起就开始积极致力于起草第一部预防和打击恐怖主义的国际公约，从那时起，它就已经观察到这项罪行的重要演变，并一直在提醒国际舞台上的不同行动者对恐怖主义威胁作出国际反应的重要性。.
例如，在国际刑警组织大会的两项决议中均体现了这种关切：AGN/52/RES/9 号决议——恐怖主义（戛纳，1983）和AGN/67/RES/12号决议——称作“1998年反恐怖主义开罗宣言”。
通过全体大会，该组织反复使成员国意识到共同反恐行动的有效性。就在9/11恐怖袭击几天之后，国际刑警组织在第70次全体大会上重申了它反恐的长期承诺，并要求“在打击恐怖主义和有组织犯罪方面，有效加强国际警方和司法合作，例如，寻求所有法律、司法和运行方式的合作机会。” (关于2001年9月11日恐怖袭击的决议)。 这次新恐怖袭击事件暴露出恐怖主义威胁的全球性，并且表明：不是恐怖行为的受害者，就是恐怖主义组织的基地或移送国，没有一个国家能置身事外。
由于没有一个国家能够独立有效地打击恐怖主义，因此唯一的出路是所有国家共同采取行动，并把基于现有国际合作方式的全球战略包括在内。显然，此战略不应仅仅局限于国家，而应包含国际组织 (AG-2005-RES-05号决议—联合国安理会请求国际刑警组织协助其反恐行动)。因此，国际刑警组织已经缔结了多项合作协议(AG-2006-RES-22号决议—联合国安理会请求深化其与国际刑警组织之间的合作，旨在为安理会制裁委员会提供更好的工具以有效完成其工作任务)，邀请不同的国际组织和政府间组织加入这项行动。
应对恐怖主义威胁，不仅要求实施并加强现有的刑事领域的国际合作机制，还要运用各种手段以及传统的警方工具。
b. 在打击恐怖主义方面传统警方工具的价值
国际刑警组织深信，尽管反恐需要特殊工具，但只有运用传统警方工具，才能有效打击恐怖主义。国际刑警工具具有现代化、简单、灵活及可被世界上所有警力使用的特点，因此尤其适合打击恐怖主义。
联络警力。于罪犯而言，国界已愈来愈失去意义，因此，跨越国界而有效的警方交流变得前所未有的重要。国际刑警组织得益于信息交流系统的发展，使得188个成员国的国家中心局能够安全有效地交流情报，国际刑警组织还建立了电子信息交流网络——一项必要的警方合作工具。该组织通过该网络发布了国际通缉令——国际刑警组织通告，其中大部分涉及恐怖分子。
使用信息。国际刑警组织为其成员国提供了广泛的数据库, 成员国可直接及时接入该数据库或为其提供资料。事实证明，了解警方信息常常对恐怖主义的调查起到决定性作用，因为它把一些看似无关的情报联系起来，如被盗的汽车或护照被用于准备袭击或谋划恐怖分子的出逃，这样的例子并不鲜见。
提供业务支持。培训，置身恐怖袭击发生现场，通过刑事分析使用国际刑警组织数据库内的警察情报等，皆系该组织为成员国提供的服务。国际刑警组织使用该组织规定四种官方语言（英语，阿拉伯语，西班牙语和法语）运行一个每周7天、每天24小时工作的指挥和协调中心，还负责运行刑事分析和警察训练方面应变小组和专家（如生化恐怖主义的警察训练），这都为全世界的警官们提供了必要的运行支持和技术支持。
自1984年以来，联合国大会逐渐认识到恐怖主义是与其他犯罪形式相关联的现象，因此，联合国大会的决议强调并重申了这些警方工具对反恐的有效性。自此，国际刑警组织已经决定建立一个“全球共同战略，该战略旨在采取所有适宜的预防、保护、监视和执法手段，在打击恐怖主义及其融资和支持网络、并减轻恐怖主义对国际和平与安全的有害影响方面，采取更为有效的的行动而筹划具体方案”。因此，国际刑警组织的反恐行动是全球性的，同时也打击其他犯罪形式，如，有组织犯罪，盗窃车辆和护照罪，以及支持和资助恐怖主义(AGN/68/RES/2 – 为恐怖主义提供资金 (首尔, 1999))的武器贩运和互联网活动罪(AG/2005/RES/10 – 打击使用互联网宣传恐怖主义行为)。
同时，国际刑警组织通过实施一系列方案和特别反恐工具把处理反恐问题列入优先位置，例如，建立反恐项目以增强有关恐怖组织的信息交流；一旦发生恐怖袭击事件，帮助各成员国或在调查过程中提供分析、调查和数据库支持服务。该反恐项目的设立旨在通过培训和分析增强成员国快速发现和打击恐怖行为的能力。尽管上述工具有所发展和准备，但从目前来看，与恐怖主义相关的信息交流仍然不足。
c. 恐怖主义相关信息交流的不足
在1998年的开罗反恐宣言中，国际刑警组织全体大会提醒各成员国遵守国际团结原则，这样，各国在反恐战斗中团结在一起。“所有成员国都必须遵守反恐国际团结原则，该原则的运用——服从于各成员国的宪法原则——以避免各成员国领土被用于准备、从事和资助恐怖主义行为，进而威胁他国的和平与安全。”
此宣言再次确认了各国要求的“经常并积极”的合作原则，按照国际刑警组织章程第31条，各国需“在符合本国法律的权力范围之内尽力参加本组织的各项活动”。实际上，国际刑警组织尽管拥有大量的数据库和188个成员国，但与很多其他机构一样，不管是在信息共享方面还是在可操作的警察工具的使用有限方面，国际刑警组织仍面临着反恐领域中国家间合作的缺乏。这种合作的缺乏部分原因是出于相互的不信任：外交紧张局势引起的不信任以及不愿意共享大量被认为是敏感的信息。
然而，我们常常容易忘记，反恐合作需要非敏感信息的共享，而且正如全体大会在近期决议中重申，这些信息能够维护国家安全（AG-2006-RES-08—就危险的在逃犯罪分子包括恐怖分子，警告全球执法部门的必要性)。国际刑警组织的方案着眼于推进一种观点，即，在更为广泛的领域内分享反恐信息是可能的，并且这种更广泛的信息分享能为国家间更有效的合作与相互信任的深化作好准备。
导致合作的缺乏的原因还包括：技能的差距并且某些情况下不可能获得警方合作技术。国际刑警组织认为，如果某一国家对恐怖主义威胁毫不设防，那么会导致整个国际社会失去防备。因此，国际刑警组织付出了巨大努力，将所有成员国联系起来，以确保信息沟通网络的畅通。
练习3
在你看来，恐怖主义究竟是国家安全问题还是国际安全问题？
(请完成本练习，并简短地将答案写在本单元的论坛上。阅读其他参与者的意见，并就相同和不同之处进行讨论)
IV. 国际刑警组织提供的保证
国际刑警组织一方面通过支持并帮助所有参与防止和打击犯罪的部门、组织和当局，促进国际警察领域的合作，另一方面致力于增强各成员国在遵守本国法律体系和国际法的同时打击恐怖主义的能力。
d. 国际性的组织
国际刑警组织拥有188个成员国，其使命也赋予了它在全球舞台上重要的作用，因此，它是一个全球性的国际性组织。根据国际刑警组织章程第二条，该组织的目标如下：
• “在不同国家现有法律系统的限制之内，本着“全球人权宣言”的精神，确保并促进各刑事警察局之间拥有最广泛的相互支援”
• “建立并发展可能有助于预防和抑制一般犯罪的各种制度 ”
本任务必须履行的四个方面：
• 国家法律 方面(第2条第2款)
• 人权方面(第2条第2款)
• 国际刑警组织的中立性和独立性方面 (第3条)
• 在国际刑警组织的活动范围内，成员国开展经常的、积极的合作方面 (第31条)
就警方合作而言，司法事宜方面的任务也很广泛，因为依据众多国际公约，国际刑警组织是法律互助及引渡相关请求递交的渠道。此作用将在第四单元和第五单元中详述。
e. 中立和独立的组织
在指导国际刑警组织行动的核心原则中，该组织中立性和独立性原则最为重要。根据国际刑警组织章程第三条，“严禁本组织干预或进行任何政治、军事、宗教或种族性质的活动”。该组织很清楚，它的中立性和独立性及行为的合法性，确保了这些原则受到承认与尊重。
国际刑警组织的中立原则于1948年确立，并多次在该组织全体大会上重申(AG-2004-RES-18 — 在恐怖组织会籍情况下、针对总秘书处的临时指令 )和（关于重申国际刑警组织独立性和中立性的宣言)。由于恐怖主义行为的实施者经常出于政治和宗教动机，恐怖主义问题将是中立性原则面临的主要挑战之一，然而，我们在下一个单元将要看到，在联合国安全理事会第1373（2001）号决议和其它一些反对恐怖主义的全球性文书中，均不考虑将政治因素作为实施恐怖主义袭击的动机。国际刑警组织可以对抗恐怖主义，只要实际情况的细节描述支持当事人的请求，国际刑警组织会特别研究那些在此方面信息不明确、担保提供不足的案例。.
该组织的独立性原则于1956年由国际刑警组织章程第30条提出，“ 秘书长和工作人员执行任务时，不得请求或接受除本组织以外的任何政府或当局的指示。他们应当避免任何有损于国际工作的行为。本组织各成员国应尊重秘书长及其工作人员任务独有的国际性，不得影响他们执行任务” 。因此，独立原则适用于成员国及其他组织，并构成了反恐事宜的一项额外保证。
f. 负责安全的组织
作为推进全球警察合作的组织，国际刑警组织显然是负责安全的组织。它对通过其网络进行的信息处理予以特别关注，尤其反恐领域的情报，同时确保情报的安全性具有技术和法律的保障。
技术安全。信息交流系统的建立确保了警方信息交流的安全，限制了数据库的接入，这对于国际刑警组织而言是十分重要的。此外，国际刑警组织拥有世界上最先进的技术并使用最新的程序以保障警方信息系统的安全。
法律安全。在处理警方情报、保障个人权利及尊重各国立法方面，该组织均有自身的规章制度。这些规章制度不仅为通过国际刑警组织进行信息共享提供了坚实的法律基础，而且包含了涉及信息保密的多项特别条款（以国际警方合作为目的而进行信息处理的规则)。
专家连线
(视频 : 采访4)
Olivier Fourès 先生（国际刑警组织法律事务厅法律顾问），解释该组织反恐法律框架相关的一些细节。
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1.5.2 反恐怖主义普遍法律制度概述
反恐怖主义普遍法律制度通过广泛的刑事司法机制，为检举和控告与恐怖主义相关的严重罪行提供了法律框架，其主要目标是确保那些组织、实施和参与恐怖主义行为的人都能被缉拿归案。 此法律制度在各单元中均有所涉及。
在第一单元本部分，我们将打好基础，学习有助于理解今后课程的法律知识，我们将在下一单元中学习国际条约和安理会决议提出的反恐要求（第二单元）以及不同合作工具的作用（第三、四、五单元）。
专家连线
(视频: 采访 5)
Jean-Paul Laborde 先生，副秘书长特别顾问，前毒品和犯罪问题办公室预防恐怖主义处处长，解释执法人员了解反恐怖主义普遍法律框架的重要性。
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C. « 反恐怖主义普遍法律制度 »的含义
《反恐怖主义普遍法律制度》并不是在法律上界定的概念，而是一个笼统的提法，用于特指在全球层面通过的一整套法律文书，提纲挈领地描述了一系列对成员国预防和打击国际恐怖主义具有法律约束力的标准。这些文书采用了国际条约和联合国安理会决议的形式，并在近几年逐渐发展完善。
由于反恐怖主义普遍法律制度包括以下文书，这些文书要求各成员国将某些违法行为定罪、并提供国家间合作机制以便把所有受到指控的违法者缉拿归案，因此，反恐普遍法律制度是国际刑法不可分割的一部分，而国际刑法是一个更加宽泛的法律领域，其最终目的是确保犯下国际罪行的嫌疑犯被绳之以法。
D. 《反恐怖主义普遍法律制度》的基本要素
40多年间，通过了16部直接与预防和打击恐怖主义相关的现行国际公约和议定书。 这些协议体现了对恐怖主义采取的“部门”策略或渐进性策略，它们分别涉及到不同的特殊犯罪行为。正是由于（截至目前为止）仍不能在普遍认可并且具有法律约束力的单一法律文书中定义恐怖主义，因此才采取了部门策略。例如，1985年的Achille Lauro 事件引起了对《1988年制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》的讨论。联合国毒品和犯罪办公室出版了一系列技术协助工具，特别是立法指南，均对这些文书有所介绍。
大部分现有的反恐怖主义的国际公约和议定书都具有共同结构，概括如下：
• 将某种特殊的行为描述为犯罪；
• 要求缔约国将以上行为在其国内法内归罪；
• 为缔约国起诉所描述的犯罪行为建立管辖权的理由；
•
• 建立不引渡即起诉原则；以及
• 在缔约国之间，为在与所描述犯罪相关的引渡和法律互助的合作方面建立法律基础
我们将在本阶段开始研究公约中提出的不同犯罪行为。国际反恐刑事合作的主要障碍之一无疑是缔约国对犯罪行为的分类缺乏一致性，众多国际合作请求由于双重犯罪的规定而遭到拒绝，其原因是刑事犯罪近似性的缺失。因此，了解犯罪行为的差异至关重要。请点击此链接 ，分析罪行的构成要件并完成相关的练习。
另外，每项公约均涉及与其描述的恐怖主义特殊表现形式相关的技术和法律问题。（比如，机长的权力，被夺取的核物质的返还，船只的登临等）
专家连线
(视频: 采访 6)
Chris Young先生（国际海事组织国际海商法与技术合作部门副主任）解释关于海上恐怖主义普遍公约的主要目标和特点。
[插入短片“UNODC 9”]
F. 管辖范围的建立
一旦在普遍公约和议定书中所描述的行为被各缔约国的国内法归罪后，紧接着就产生了下述问题，即，哪个国家有能力起诉受到指控的罪犯。每个国家都有义务界定其对于恐怖主义的管辖权范围。普遍公约和议定书的直接目的是为了确保尽可能多的缔约国具有起诉的能力，以避免为受到指控的恐怖分子留下“避风港”。
IV. 各缔约国怎样确立其管辖权？
从地理上来看，四种体系可以确定法律的适用范围。
• 首先，最传统的方式是属地原则。据此，不管犯罪行为人或受害人的国籍，一律适用于犯罪实施地的刑法。该原则的逻辑在于，一个主权国家能在领土上执行命令并惩罚违法者。反恐条约责成各国对在其领土上、或者根据立法注册在其国内的船只和航空器上实施的犯罪确立管辖权。由于各国不能容忍其领土用作恐怖主义目的，他们必须确立在其陆地领土、领海和领空中施行的恐怖主义行为的属地管辖权。
• 其次为属人管辖权原则。根据这项原则，侵害行为由犯罪行为人（主动属人管辖权）或是受害人（被动属人管辖权）的国内法管辖。根据反恐条约，各国应建立主动属人管辖权，根据此管辖权，各国就能追诉被怀疑在领土外实施侵害行为的该国国民。在某些情况下，各国也需建立被动属人管辖权，根据此管辖权，受害人的国籍国也具有追诉犯罪行为人的能力。最后，如果受指控的违法者无国籍，另有一些公约建立了管辖权的选择性标准。
• 再次，保护性管辖权原则只考虑受害国家的根本利益，不管犯罪实施地或犯罪行为人的国籍，一旦侵害行为涉及到国家利益，受害国则具有管辖权。反恐条约将这项管辖权确立标准视为可选。
• 最后，按照普遍性管辖原则，无论犯罪实施地在何处，受害人和犯罪行为人的国籍，以及受害国的损失，某国对某种特殊犯罪行为具有管辖权（如比利时对人道主义犯罪具有普遍管辖权）。这项原则并没有整体被公约所采纳，而仅仅在混合情况下采用，即当犯罪嫌疑人在某国领土出现，或者该国未遵照不引渡即起诉原则引渡他，那么该国不得不实施管辖权。.
V. 不引渡即起诉原则的特点是什么？
反恐怖主义普遍法律制度建立的基础在于，恐怖行为的实施者要么由其本国缉拿归案，要么移交至他国进行起诉。此原则的目的是阻止一切对恐怖分子的庇护而使其无处容身，拉丁文表述为 aut deaut dedere, aut judicare，译为“不引渡即起诉” （起诉指绳之以法 ，即，在国家引渡的情况下，将国家不能引渡的案件移交至有能力进行审判的法庭），这已在第1373号决议和反恐普遍文书中设立。当受指控的犯罪嫌疑人在某国领土出现，且按照国内法律，该国不具有起诉管辖权，或者不能引渡时，此原则为“准通用”管辖权的实施作了准备。这将在第五单元关于引渡的部分进行深入探讨。
VI. 如果太多国家拥有管辖权会怎样？
为确保不存在“恐怖分子的避风港”，公约可能会引起“管辖权的积极冲突”，从而导致太多国家宣称其有起诉管辖权。由于未能建立具有约束力的机制解决这种情况，诸如资助恐怖主义条约等一些国际条约，鼓励缔约国互相商议和协调行动以便确定哪个国家为最佳起诉地。然而，公约并未具体说明这种协调如何达成，也未设立标准以衡量某国管辖权应凌驾于他国之上。此类规定旨在提供普遍的合作框架，为缔约国提供自由裁量权的空间。
练习 4 – 小型案例分析– 空中客车A-320爆炸案
B国航空公司的一架在B国注册的空客A-320飞机，从A国起飞，目的地为B国。在飞过贵国上空（D国）时，飞机在沙漠地带上空爆炸，导致170人死亡。遇难者中包括A国和B国国民。涉嫌参与此次航空器爆炸事件的C国国民出现在贵国领土。
您作为贵国的检察官，
您是否能确立管辖权以起诉袭击的实施者？
您是否认为其他国家有兴趣确立其管辖权？
如是，将会是哪些国家？其兴趣又是什么？
如果几个国家均确立了管辖权，您会怎么做？
国际刑事法院是否对此行为具有管辖权？
(请单独完成这项练习，并记录下您的结论以便将来参考.)
1.6 结论
本单元介绍了反恐怖主义的机构和全球法律构架，包括反恐怖主义普遍法律制度的发展及其基本要素。我们特别关注了有关国际条约中归罪的规定，强调了当犯罪分子在境外实施犯罪行为时，犯罪分子所属国对其具有起诉管辖权的需要。本单元还描述了反恐领域开展国际合作的背景。
联合国毒品和犯罪办公室文书资料:
• Abi-Saab, G. (2004). The proper role of international law in combating terrorism. In Andrea Bianchi (ed). Enforcing international law norms against terrorism. Oxford: Hart Publishing, p. xii-iv.
• Arnold, R. (2004). The ICC as a new instrument for repressing terrorism. Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bassiouni, C. (2003). Introduction to international criminal law. Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bassiouni, C. (2001). International terrorism: Multilateral conventions (1937-2001). Ardsley, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers.
• Bantekas, I. and Nash, S. (2003). International criminal law. London: Cavendish. (Partiellement disponible sur Google Books à l’adresse suivante :
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=RYnyMesaNTMC&dq=Bantekas %26 Nash, International Criminal Law,&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=61SceY6CL8&sig=_DW_F4MQaE83YCK4vYX0tQRXO4g&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1.)
• Cassese, A. (2005). Public international law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Weigend T. (2006). The universal terrorist : The international community grappling with a definition. Journal of International Criminal Justice [online], 4(5), p. 912 à 932. Disponible sur Internet à l’adresse suivante :
http://jicj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/5/912?maxtoshow=&HITS=6&hits=6&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&fulltext=organized crime&andorexactfulltext=phrase&searchid=1&resourcetype=HWCIT.
• 简单和快速获取有关全球反恐文书相关信息的指南
附言: 网页将为您提供本教程所需之大部分资料，但我们仍建议您常备一份贵国的宪法和刑事立法的文本，这会在您完成练习时用到，最后，我们须指出，此教学资料是全球反恐计划中的一项培训工具，由联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室的预防恐怖主义处管理。此计划框架中还包含其他工具，如，反恐怖主义普遍法律制度立法指南， 这在联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室网页上可以查阅到，您还能找到在此并未完整讨论的法律问题的更多信息和探讨过的主题的更多细节。
国际刑警组织文书资料:
• AG-2006-RES-09 —土生土长的恐怖分子—与基地组织相关／或受其启发的恐怖主义
• AGN/55/RES/3—恐怖主义案件的合作；国家中心局和特殊部门指南(贝尔格莱德， 1986)。
| English to Chinese: Nobel peace prize: A call to action
General field: Social Sciences | Source text - English
Nobel peace prize: A call to action
Editorial
The Guardian, Saturday 10 October 2009
The day that Henry Kissinger picked it up, satire was said to have died. When the Nobel peace prize was awarded to Barack Obama yesterday something different expired – the idea that the accolade is for achievement, as opposed to potential.
Mr Obama was sworn in as president on 20 January this year, a mere 11 days before the 1 February deadline which the Nobel Foundation sets for nominations. During that time the new man in the White House made positive noises on healthcare and Guantánamo, but any claim that the world had acquired a new prince of peace in these early days would have to have relied on Mr Obama's successful move to pacify the Democratic party, by bringing Hillary Clinton back into the fold. However deft that manoeuvre, it is hardly the sort of thing that is supposed to qualify a Nobel laureate.
Even if the nomination was ludicrously premature, it remains conceivable that something that has happened during the best part of the year that has subsequently passed would justify the Nobel committee's decision. Certainly, Mr Obama has shown himself to have pacific yearnings, emphasising jaw-jaw over war-war in all his speeches, bravely promoting nuclear disarmament and taking decisions – as over European missile defence – which tend to cool diplomatic relations. But if the Obama effect is making itself felt in ambassadorial armchairs across the world, it is conspicuous by its absence in chief theatres of real conflict – or at least it is thus far.
Take the Middle East, where Mr Obama's Cairo speech in June was stirring in explaining how Palestinians had "suffered in pursuit of a homeland", but the desperate conditions in Israeli-blockaded Gaza have not since improved one jot. Indeed the president has failed to secure even a temporary pause in Israeli building in the occupied West Bank. The American standoff with Iran remains fraught, and potentially explosive. And then of course there is Afghanistan, where Mr Obama remains commander-in-chief of an army at war in a foundering campaign. The Nobel committee might have judged him on his plan for peace – except he has not got one. He is currently trying to make his mind up about whether to step up or scale down the operation.
The reality is that the award is less a recognition of Mr Obama's achievements than a mark of thanks from the world for his not being George W Bush. Encouragingly, the president acknowledged this oddity yesterday when he said would accept the prize in the spirit of "a call to action". From the squalid streets of Gaza city to the blood-soaked fields of southern Afghanistan, it is a call the world needs him to heed.
| Translation - Chinese
诺贝尔和平奖：行动的呼吁
2009年10月10日 星期六 《卫报》社论
在美国前国务卿亨利•基辛格（Henri Kissinger）摘得1973年诺贝尔和平奖的当天，有人说，讽刺已经消弭了。而昨天，当诺贝尔和平奖被授予美国总统巴拉克•奥巴马(Barack Obama)时，寿终正寝的却是一种观念：与潜力相比，荣誉更青睐成就。
2009年1月20日，奥巴马宣誓就任美国总统，这距离诺贝尔基金会候选人提名的截至日期——2月1日仅仅11天。此间，这位新任白宫主人就医疗改革和关闭关塔纳摩（Guantanamo）监狱描绘了积极的蓝图。
然而，此前关于世界获得一位新任和平王子的主张却不得不依赖于奥巴马的成功步骤，他将其竞选对手前总统夫人希拉里•克林顿（Hillary Clinton）请回执政团队，出任国务卿一职，使得民主党内部的争夺战得以平息。 不管这步棋下得多么高明，也与具备诺贝尔获得者的资格相去甚远。
纵然本次诺贝尔和平奖的提名滑稽可笑，操之过急，但仍合乎想象。在今年随之而来的数个月中，重大事件的发生将证明诺贝尔奖和平委员会的决定是正确的。当然，奥巴马先生已经显示出其对和平的渴盼；在所有演讲中，他强调动口要比动武好；他勇敢地致力于推动核裁军；他作出各项促使外交摩擦降温的决定，比如调整欧洲导弹防御系统。但是，即使全世界外交大使们的扶手椅都能感觉到奥巴马和平效应，但它在主要的真正发生冲突的场合却并未发挥作用，这是非常明显的——或者至少迄今为止是如此。
比如中东问题，今年六月，奥巴马总统在开罗大学发表演讲，解释巴勒斯坦人如何“在寻求家园的过程中遭受了磨难”，从而引起轰动。但在以色列人实施封锁的加沙地带，其满目苍痍的现状并未由此取得丝毫突破。在约旦河西岸，被占领的巴勒斯坦领土上，以色列人继续修建犹太人定居点，实际上，奥巴马总统连临时的建设冻结也没能促成。美国与伊朗的对峙仍旧让人焦虑，很有可能一触即发。当然，在阿富汗，奥巴马总统仍然在这场行将溃败的战斗中任三军统帅。也许诺贝尔和平委员会的评判是建立在其和平计划的基础上——但他并未有任何计划。现在，奥巴马总统正在努力决策，究竟是将战争升级，还是缩小其规模。
诺贝尔和平奖并非是对奥巴马总统和平成就的认可，而是国际社会对他不会成为乔治•W•布什而千恩万谢的庆贺，这才是现实。令人鼓舞的是，昨天，总统先生承认此次获奖出乎意料，他将接受诺贝尔奖，并以此作为“行动的呼吁”。从穷困潦倒的加沙城街道，到浸满鲜血的阿富汗南部土地，这就是世界需要他行动起来的呼吁。
| English to Chinese: Pet Project
General field: Medical | Source text - English
Pet Project
Solo takes a double dose of Xanax (alprazolam) for his nerves during the 4 July festivities in the United States. That is in addition to the antidepressant, fluoxetine or amitriptyline, that the 11-year-old border collie takes year-round. Fireworks just set him off, as do thunderclaps, gunshots — practically any explosive sounds — sending him into nervous fits. Panting and drooling with eyes dilated, he desperately searches for a place to hide. If another dog is nearby, he might attack. “It’s called anxiety redirection,” says Melanie Chang, Solo’s owner and an evolutionary biologist at the University of Oregon in Eugene.
As a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, Chang helped to collect hundreds of border-collie DNA samples, including Solo’s, as part of a project studying the genes for noise phobia. She estimates that at least 50% of collies suffer from it, with 10% severely affected. Steven Hamilton, a psychiatrist at the University of California, San Francisco, who runs the project, says that he sees parallels between the dogs’ panic and human anxiety. A growing number of projects like Hamilton’s are underway to both help suffering dogs and untangle the roots of human neuropsychiatric disease.
The hunt for genes causing psychiatric problems in humans has been “hard work with slim pickings”, says Jonathan Flint, a geneticist at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics in Oxford, UK. This is partly because human genomes are complex and these disorders are hard to diagnose consistently. But owing to 200 years of selective inbreeding, dogs have a bevy of breed-specific behaviours, and their genomes make it relatively easy to track down the genes responsible. “They are the only naturally occurring models of psychiatric disorders, and perfect for genetic mapping and cloning” says Guoping Feng, a mouse geneticist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, who is setting up collaborations with dog researchers. Whether certain canine conditions arose by chance or are an unintentional outcome of selection for a specific quality is a matter of speculation. But behaviour problems are definitely frequent. Nicholas Dodman, an animal behaviour specialist at Tufts University in North Grafton, Massachusetts, estimates that, at minimum, 40% of the 77.5 million dogs owned in the United States have some kind of behavioural disorder.
Researchers have good reason to believe that dogs will give up their genetic secrets more easily than humans. A study this year, for example, showed that variants at six locations in the dog genome could explain 80% of the variation in dog body size1. In contrast, 294,831 common human variants, considered simultaneously, explained only 45% of height differences between humans. But if the genetics of height is so different in dogs and humans, one might wonder why the genetics of anxiety, compulsion or aggression would be similar. Patrick Sullivan, a geneticist at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, says that “behaviour that appears intriguingly similar in human and another species could have a completely different genetic architecture”, meaning that the same trait could map to different genes or to different parts of the brain. Proponents of canine studies suggest, however, that dog genes might hint at the pathways involved in human disease, and that might be enough.
Sleeping dogs don’t lie
At least one success story shows that studies in dogs can lead to answers in humans. For decades, researchers vainly sifted through the DNA of human narcoleptics to find the genes behind the sleep disorder. But many genes were involved, environmental factors were inconsistent and no clear mechanism emerged. “People were arguing whether it was an autoimmune disease, but no one knew what to do next. It was too difficult,” says Emmanuel Mignot, a sleep researcher at the Stanford University School of Medicine in Redwood City, California, with a background in molecular pharmacology.
But Dobermann pinschers are often susceptible to narcolepsy, and they held the key. In 1989, Mignot started to use classical genetic techniques to breed narcoleptic Dobermanns and trace the inheritance pattern of the disorder. Without the benefit of modern genetic and genomic tools it took him ten years to zero in on the mutation that caused the disease, in a gene called hypocretin receptor 2, which regulates the brain’s uptake of the neurotransmitter hypocretin, also known as orexin. Mignot did not find the same mutation in the corresponding human gene, but he did find changes in the hypocretin pathway. “We started to measure hypocretin in cerebrospinal fluid. In narcoleptics, it was gone. It was striking,” says Mignot. Researchers are homing in on human gene mutations that lead to hypocretin depletion and to narcolepsy, and drug companies are targeting hypocretin as a possible lead in the search for insomnia treatments.
Same dogs, new tricks
Since Mignot published his studies, the canine genome has been sequenced. That has ultimately allowed researchers to quickly and easily compare the genomes of hundreds of dogs by looking at single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) — single-letter changes in the genome that act as markers for inherited blocks of DNA. The genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that researchers can carry out using these markers are much simpler in dogs than in humans. Most dog breeds are extremely homogeneous; individual animals in the same breed share significantly larger DNA blocks than are shared by any two humans. That means that researchers can look at fewer SNPs and fewer individuals to find a block of DNA that associates reliably with a disease. According to Kerstin Lindblad-Toh of the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Massachusetts, human GWAS might require 5,000 individuals with a trait of interest and 5,000 controls without it to show that the trait is convincingly associated with a particular genome region. Dog studies can get by on as few as a hundred cases and a hundred controls. And a study requiring hundreds of thousands of SNPs in humans might need only 15,000 in canines.
Anne-Sophie Lequarré, a veterinarian at the University of Liège in Belgium, coordinates LUPA, the European dog-genetics initiative. The LUPA project, started in 2008 with a €12-million (US$15.4-million) budget, brings together some 100 researchers to study single-gene and complex disorders — including cancer, cardiovascular disease and neurological disorders — by genotyping 10,000 dogs. Researchers involved will soon publish findings on two mutations in dog genes that cause disorders corresponding with human disease, says Lequarré: “The first results really show that once you find a mutation [related to a disease] in dogs, 90% of the cases involve the same gene in humans.”
Compulsive disorders may be among the first successes in unravelling human behavioural conditions through dogs. More than 60 studies on genes in mice thought to have a role in human obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) have so far failed to find significant, reproducible associations. But there are lots of dogs with obsessive behaviour. A high proportion of bull terriers, for example, chase their tails relentlessly. Many large-breed dogs, such as Dobermanns, German shepherds, Great Danes and golden retrievers, chew their flanks or lick their legs until they lose hair, develop lesions and in some cases cripple themselves — a habit some compare with obsessive hand washing and other rituals of people with OCD.
In January, Lindblad-Toh and Dodman reported a link between canine compulsive disorder and a region on the dog’s chromosome 7. Their study was based on an analysis of 14,700 SNPs in the genomes of more than 90 compulsively chewing Dobermanns and about 70 controls. It linked the behaviour to variations in a 400-kilobase-long stretch of DNA. One gene in the targeted region has already captured the imaginations of other researchers. CDH2 encodes the protein cadherin 2, which is involved in forming connections between neural cells. Deanna Benson, a neuroscientist at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York, says the possibility that cadherins are involved in OCD has inspired others. Feng, who makes mouse models for OCD, is exploring the link. Last autumn, he and Lindblad-Toh struck up a collaboration to find brain circuitry related to compulsion that is shared by mice, dogs and humans. Feng is now knocking out Cdh2 function in specific brain regions of mice to test whether that produces OCD-like behaviours.
Dogged progress
Lindblad-Toh is now seeking a tighter genetic fit to human OCD. Researchers approach dog genetic studies in two steps: first narrowing in on a large DNA chunk within one breed and then looking for overlap with that region in the DNA of dogs of other breeds with the same disease. Mignot used narcoleptic dachshunds to home in on the mutation expressed by his sleepy Dobermanns. And by comparing DNA loci in flanksucking German shepherds and tail-chasing bull terriers, Lindblad-Toh hopes to narrow the implicated region on chromosome 7 to a more manageable 10 kilobases. Similarly, Hamilton intends to broaden his noise-phobia studies from border collies to bearded collies and Australian shepherds that show similar anxieties.
But canine genetics is challenged by some of the same issues that have foiled researchers studying human illnesses. Diagnoses for neuropsychiatric disease are slippery. Schizophrenia, for example, could represent a collection of many different disorders, each with separate genetic and environmental triggers. And if the subjects grouped by symptoms have different underlying diseases, GWAS can become confused. “A few dogs can spoil a cohort,” says Lequarré. She cites an epilepsy study that was not delivering any significant correlations. The researchers later found that some of the dogs in the disease group actually had a form of late-onset epilepsy that was different from that being studied. “Phenotyping is crucial. You need to have dogs that have exactly the same disease,” she says.
LUPA is making an effort to clarify diagnosis. To identify neurological disorders consistently, the group selected veterinarians who follow standard procedures in parsing dog temperament. LUPA’s neurological-disorder division is focusing on aggression in the English cocker spaniel and English springer spaniel, both given to sudden fits of rage. The researchers hope that the studies will identify mutations in genes related to human bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and other mental disorders involving aggression.
Excitement over dog models has been spreading. At the University of Tokyo’s Laboratory of Veterinary Ethology, Yukari Takeuchi has collected DNA labrador retrievers to look for the genes underlying the former’s aggression and latter’s lapses in concentration. It could help solve a practical problem, she says. Distracted retrievers do not make good guide dogs, and knowing the gene variant responsible could help breeders to limit the trait in their stocks.
Elaine Ostrander, dog geneticist at the National Human Genome Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, is confident that dogs have much to offer human health beyond the pleasure of warm fur and a cold, wet nose. “For 10,000 years, dog has been man’s best friend. When we transitioned to hunter-gatherer, when we switched to agrarian, they were there. Now, in the genomic era, dog is serving man again by helping us identify genes,” she says.
| Translation - Chinese
人犬同病相怜 人犬基因相似
人类伴侣 科研新宠
在7月4日美国欢庆独立纪念日期间，索罗(Solo)因神经紧张服用了双倍剂量的赞安诺（Xanax，这是一种抗焦虑的药物阿普唑仑alprazolam）。不仅如此，索罗每天均需服用抗抑郁剂（antidepressant），即氟西汀（fluoxetine）或阿米替林（amitriptyline），其实索罗只是一头11岁的边境牧羊犬。庆典的焰火亦如雷鸣霹雳和枪炮声一般，使索罗情绪失控，几乎任何爆炸声都会让它突然惊恐发作。此刻，它气喘吁吁、流涎不止、双眼圆睁，不顾一切地要觅得一处藏身之地。假如附近有另外一只狗，索罗也许会攻击之。这种反应被张美莲（Melanie Chang）博士称为“焦虑转向”，她既是索罗的主人，也是美国尤金俄勒冈大学（University of Oregon，Eugene）的进化生物学家。
在她担任旧金山加州大学（University of California）博士后研究员期间，张博士就曾协助采集数百个边境牧羊犬的DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）标本，用于噪音恐惧症基因研究项目，其中也包括索罗的DNA标本。她估计至少有50%的边境牧羊犬患有噪音恐惧症，其中10%遭受该病的严重困扰。旧金山加州大学的精神病学家斯蒂芬•汉密尔顿（Steven Hamilton）博士是该噪音恐惧症基因研究项目的负责人，他注意到犬类的惊恐与人类的焦虑之间存在某些相似之处。愈来愈多类似汉密尔顿博士的研究项目正在付诸实施，一则帮助犬类解除所遭受之痛苦，二则探究人类神经精神疾病之根源。
然而，寻找人类精神病问题的致病基因，在英国牛津维康信托基金会人类遗传学中心（Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics，Oxford）的遗传学家约纳森•弗林特（Jonathan Flint）教授看来，却是“费力又不讨好的差事”。他这样说的部分原因是人类基因组错综复杂，而且对精神疾病的临床诊断很难达到一致。但是，犬类经过了200年的选择性近亲繁殖，拥有了特定犬种所具备的一系列行为，他们的基因组也使得追踪致病基因相对容易。对此，美国剑桥麻省理工大学（Massachusetts Institute of Technology，Cambridge）的小鼠遗传学家冯国平教授（Guoping Feng）认为，狗是独一无二的精神障碍性疾病的天然模型，非常适合于基因作图和基因克隆，他正在着手与犬类研究者建立合作。某些犬类疾病究竟是偶然出现的，还是犬种选择了某一特性而产生的意外结果，目前都只能进行推测。但是，犬只的行为问题确实频频发生。美国马萨诸塞州北克拉福顿塔夫斯大学(Tufts University, North Grafton，Massachusetts)的动物行为学家尼古拉斯•杜德曼（Nicholas Dodman）博士估算，在美国7750万只狗中，至少40%具有某种行为障碍。
研究者们有充分理由相信犬类比人类更容易泄露其基因秘密。例如，今年进行的一项研究表明，犬基因组上六个位点的基因变异体能够解释80%犬类体型的变异1。相比之下，即便同时分析294,831个常见的人类基因变异体，也只能对45%的人类身高差异作出解释。如果人和狗的身高遗传学有天壤之别，为何两者的焦虑、强迫行为或攻击行为的遗传学却极为相似，这令人顿生疑窦。美国北卡罗来纳大学教堂山分校（University of North Carolina，Chapel Hill）的遗传学家帕特里克•苏利文（Patrick Sullivan）教授说：“人类与另一物种之间看上去惊人相似的行为，却有着大相径庭的基因构造，”言下之意，同一性状可能绘制出不同的基因图谱，或者定位于不同的大脑区域。然而，犬类研究的拥趸却表示，犬基因也许会暗示与人类疾病有关的路径，此亦足矣。
睡眠障碍 人犬共患
探犬基因 寻新线索
至少有一个成功案例证明，研究犬类可以发现治疗人类疾病的方法。为了找出睡眠障碍性疾病的致病基因，研究者们对发作性睡眠性疾病患者的DNA进行了数十年筛查，却徒劳无功。该病涉及到的基因众多，环境因素也不稳定，清晰的发病机制尚不明了。伊曼纽尔•米格诺特(Emmanuel Mignot)教授说：“人们当时还在争论发作性睡眠性疾病是否是一种自身免疫性疾病，但没人知道下一步研究何去何从。真是举步维艰！”米格诺特教授是美国加州红杉市斯坦福大学医学院(Stanford University School of Medicine，Redwood City)的睡眠研究者，拥有分子药理学的研究背景。
但是，杜宾犬常常易患发作性睡眠性疾病，它们成为解开该病之谜的关键所在。米格诺特教授从1989年开始运用多种传统基因技术，饲养患有发作性睡眠性疾病的杜宾犬，以期查明该疾病的遗传模式。由于没有应用研究遗传和基因组的现代科技方法，米格诺特教授花费了十年时间才确定了与导致发作性睡眠性疾病有关的下丘脑分泌素受体2（hypocretin receptor 2）的基因突变，该基因调节大脑摄取下丘脑分泌素（一种神经递质），又名食欲素（orexin）。尽管米格诺特教授未能在相应的人类基因中找到相同的基因突变，但他在下丘脑分泌素的路径中确实发现了一些变化。米格诺特教授说：“我们开始测量脑脊髓液中的下丘脑分泌素。在发作性睡眠性疾病患者的脑脊髓液中，下丘脑分泌素消失得无影无踪。真是令人惊讶。”目前，研究者们正在潜心钻研导致下丘脑分泌素枯竭以及发作性睡眠性疾病的人类基因突变，此外，医药公司也将下丘脑分泌素锁定为寻找失眠疗法的可能线索。
疑难病症 人犬共有
做犬研究 现新转机
自从米格诺特教授发表其研究报告以来，科学家们一直在对犬基因组进行测序。这最终使得研究者们通过检测SNPs（单核苷酸多态性，single nucleotide polymorphisms）,就能方便快捷地比较数百只犬的基因组，SNPs是指基因组上单个核苷酸的变化,发挥着遗传的DNA基因片段的标记物作用。通过使用这些标记物，研究者在犬只中实施GWAS（genome-wide association studies，全基因组关联研究）要比在人类中实施GWAS更加简单。大部分犬种都极其单纯，因此，同一犬种的狗所拥有的相同DNA片段的数量大大超过任何两个人所拥有的相同DNA片段的数量。这就是说，研究者通过检测数量更少的SNPs和犬只，便能找到与某种疾病存在可靠关联的一个DNA片段。根据美国马萨诸塞州剑桥博大研究所（Broad Institue）科尔斯汀•琳达巴德托（Kerstin Lindblad-Toh）博士的观点，人类GWAS的实施可能需要5,000个具有所研究的特定性状的个体以及5,000个不具有该性状的个体进行对照，才能显示出该性状与某特定基因组区域之间的关联是令人信服的。然而，犬类GWAS仅需采用一百只具有特定性状的犬和一百只对照犬即可达到上述目的。而且，需要数十万个人类SNPs的研究可能只需要15,000个犬类SNPs。
比利时列日大学（University of Liège）的兽医安妮•索菲•勒括赫（Anne-Sophie Lequarré）博士负责协调欧洲犬类遗传学研究项目LUPA（European Dog-Genetics Initiative）。LUPA于2008年启动，预算达1200万欧元（合1540万美元），它将上百位研究者揽入麾下，旨在通过对一万只犬进行基因分型，以研究单基因疾病和复杂性疾病（包括癌症、心血管疾病和神经障碍性疾病）。参与LUPA的研究者们即将发表有关两个犬基因突变的研究结果，这两个基因突变所引发的犬类疾病与人类疾病相一致，勒括赫博士说：“第一批研究结果的确显示，一旦你在犬只中发现了 [与某疾病有关的]基因突变，就有90%的情况涉及到同一个人类基因。”
通过研究犬只阐释人类行为状况首战告捷, 强迫症也许是其中之一。六十多项小鼠基因研究曾被认为有助于深入认识人类OCD（强迫性神经症， obsessive–compulsive disorder），但迄今为止，这些研究均未找到小鼠基因与人类OCD之间可重复的重要关联。但是具有强迫行为的犬只却很多。例如，斗牛梗犬中有很高比例的不停追逐尾部的行为。诸如杜宾犬、德国牧羊犬、大丹犬及金毛猎犬等很多大型犬都有咀嚼胁腹或舔舐腿部，直至其脱毛，身体发生病变的行为，在某些情况下它们甚至自残，这种习惯从某种程度上可以与OCD患者的强迫性洗手及其它仪式动作相比较。
今年一月，琳达巴德托博士和杜德曼教授公布了犬类强迫症与犬类第7号染色体上某个区域之间的关联。他们研究是基于对14,700个SNPs的分析，这些SNPs来自90多只具有强迫性咀嚼行为的杜宾犬以及约70只对照犬的基因组。该项研究将杜宾犬的强迫性咀嚼行为与一段长度为40万个碱基对的DNA上的变异联系起来。此靶区中的一个基因已经激发了其他研究者的想象力。这就是CDH2基因（钙粘连蛋白基因），由CDH2编码的蛋白质钙粘连蛋白2（cadherin 2）参与构成了神经细胞之间的连接。纽约西奈山医学院（Mount Sinai School of Medicine）的神经学家迪安娜•本森(Deanna Benson) 博士表示，钙粘连蛋白可能与OCD相关已经大大鼓舞了其他研究者。冯国平教授正着手为OCD建立小鼠模型，他也在探索钙粘连蛋白与OCD之间的关联。去年秋天，冯国平教授与琳达巴德托博士开始合作，旨在找到与人类、犬类及鼠类所共有的强迫行为相关的大脑回路。目前，冯国平教授正在将小鼠大脑中特定区域的Cdh2功能剔除，目的是试验Cdh2是否会产生类似OCD的行为。
万年长路 人犬共渡
建犬模型 得新突破
琳达巴德托博士正在寻找与人类OCD更特异的相配基因。研究者们实施犬类遗传学研究一般需经过以下两个步骤：首先，聚焦于某犬种的一大块DNA片段，然后，在罹患相同疾病的其他犬种的DNA中，寻找与该DNA片段相重叠的区域。米格诺特教授就曾经使用患有发作性睡眠性疾病的腊肠犬，以追踪嗜睡杜宾犬的突变基因表达。此外，琳达巴德托博士还希望通过比较具有胁腹咀嚼行为的德国牧羊犬与具有尾部追逐行为的斗牛梗犬的DNA位点，将7号染色体上的复杂区域缩小至长度为1万个碱基对的片段内，从而更易于控制。无独有偶，汉密尔顿博士也计划将其噪音恐惧症的研究范围从边境牧羊犬拓展至长须牧羊犬和澳大利亚牧羊犬，后两种犬表现出类似的焦虑症。
但是，犬类遗传学正面临重重挑战，而正是这些难题已经使人类疾病研究者遭遇了“滑铁卢”。这是因为对神经精神疾病作出临床诊断确实非常棘手。例如，精神分裂症能够代表一组许多不同的精神障碍，其各自均有独特的基因触发物与环境诱因。如果按照症状分组的实验对象患有不同的基础疾病，那么GWAS就会变得混乱。勒括赫博士说：“几只狗就成了害群之马”。她援引了一项未获得任何重要关联的癫痫研究。其研究者后来才发现，疾病组里有些犬只实际上患有一种迟发性癫痫，这与当时所研究的癫痫有所不同。勒括赫博士认为：“表型至关重要。你必须具备罹患完全相同疾病的犬只。”
LUPA正致力于明确神经障碍性疾病的临床诊断。为了达到鉴别神经障碍性疾病的一致性，LUPA研究小组挑选了在分析犬只性情过程中遵守标准程序的兽医。LUPA的神经障碍性疾病分部正在钻研英国可卡猎犬和英国史宾格犬的攻击行为，因为两者都有突然暴怒发作的倾向。研究者们希望通过这些研究，能够找到与下列疾病相关的基因突变：即，人类双相性精神障碍、精神分裂症以及包括攻击行为在内的其他精神障碍性疾病。
越来越多的研究者热衷于建立和分析犬模型。在东京大学（University of Tokyo）的兽医动物行为学实验室，竹内由香（Yukari Takeuchi）博士已经分别采集了日本芝犬和拉布拉多猎犬的DNA，以寻找导致前者攻击行为及后者注意力不集中的基因。她说，这可以帮助解决实际问题。注意力分散的寻回犬不能成为优秀的导盲犬，因此，找到引起注意力分散的基因变异可以帮助饲养员限制繁殖具有该特定性状的犬只。
犬类会对人类健康有更多奉献，这将超越它们皮毛温暖和鼻子湿凉给予人类的欢愉，对此，美国马里兰州贝塞斯达美国国家人类基因组研究所（National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland）的犬类遗传学家伊莲•奥斯特兰德（Elaine Ostrander）博士信心十足。她表示：“一万年以来，犬类与人类情同手足。当我们转变为采猎者和农业者时，他们都一路相伴，不离不弃。在今天的基因组时代，犬类帮助我们鉴别基因，将再次为人类效力。”
| English to Chinese: The China Fix
General field: Social Sciences | Source text - English
The China Fix
By JAMES MCGREGOR
In my more than two decades in China, I have seldom seen the foreign business community more angry and disillusioned than it is today. Such sentiment goes beyond the Internet censorship and cyber-spying that led to Google's Jan. 12 threat to bail out of China, or the clash of values (freedom vs. control) implied by the Google case. It is about the perception that anti-foreign attitudes and policies in China have been growing and hardening since the global economic crisis pushed the U.S. and Europe into a tailspin and launched China to its very uncomfortable stardom on the world stage.
Visiting CEOs' banquet-table chatter is now dominated by swapping tales of arrogant and insolent Chinese bureaucrats and business partners. The litany includes purposefully inconsistent and nontransparent enforcement of regulations, rampant intellectual-property theft, state penetration of multinationals through union and Communist Party organizations, blatant market impediments through rigged product standards and testing, politicized courts and agencies that almost always favor local companies, creative and selective enforcement of WTO requirements ... The list goes on.
The foreign business community in China has deep respect and affection for the Chinese people and their hard-earned success. But more than a few foreign business leaders are asking themselves if they have been bamboozled by the system. Multinationals have been solid citizens in China, handing over heaps of capital, technology, training, source code, best practices and proprietary products to joint-venture partners they were forced into bed with. They have funded schools, orphanages, disaster reconstruction, overseas scholarships and all manner of poverty-alleviation programs. But now that the China market matters more to them, it appears that China couldn't care less. Increasingly difficult China-market access is the immediate worry. But many are looking ahead and losing sleep over expectations that their onetime partners are morphing into predators — and that their own technology and know-how will be coming back at them globally in the form of cut-price products from subsidized state-owned behemoths.
At the same time, I have also seldom seen the Chinese government and business community more unsettled and uncertain. Theirs is an arrogance borne of insecurity. The global financial chaos and China's rocketing global status threw off the meticulous national development schedules carefully crafted by the risk-averse and surprise-allergic engineers who run the Party.
The pressures on Chinese President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao are overwhelming. They are white-knuckling their way through their final two years in office, focusing on 8% or higher growth and crushing any dissent that could derail it. The Chinese people are generally pretty happy, but the Party leadership is terrified of their outsized expectations. People under age 40, the progeny of the one-child policy, didn't live through Maoist poverty and upheaval. They are pampered, impatient and demanding. They consider exponential growth as a basic benchmark of life, and access to information to be a civil right. China's rich are powerful opponents of further reform and opening. They made money the local way and are determined to block foreign competition so this can continue.
In their spare time, China's leaders are reaching under the carpet to tackle the country's endemic corruption, epidemic pollution, emaciated health care, shredded social services, entrenched industrial overcapacity and swiftly aging population, to name a few. They have little remaining bandwidth, and no experience or desire to be the visionary and magnanimous world leaders who can look beyond China's own often desperate needs that the world wants them to be.
So both Chinese and non-Chinese have legitimate challenges and understandable phobias. Google is just a proxy in this intensifying dispute. It's really about rebalancing the economic and political dynamic between China and the developed world, with the U.S. as the key negotiator for the West. It won't be easy. China and the U.S. are past masters at blaming their domestic policy failings on outsiders. Finger-pointing politicians and chest-beating nationalists in the two nations will make rational discussion nearly impossible. Yet it is time for leaders on both sides of the Pacific to lift their heads above overwhelming domestic concerns and fix China's deteriorating relationship with foreign business and the developed world before things get out of control. One thing's certain: they won't find the answers through Google.
McGregor, a senior counselor for APCO Worldwide, is a former chairman of the American Chamber of Commerce in China and author of One Billion Customers: Lessons from the Front Lines of Doing Business in China
| Translation - Chinese
文章
中国式修复
关于谷歌的争论缘何成为在华外企的引爆点？
撰稿人：麦健陆（James McGregor）
在华20余年，我几乎未见过外企界比今天更恼羞成怒与大失所望了。这种感伤远远超过了网络审查制度和网络间谍，甚至于引发了1月12日谷歌威胁要退出中国市场；或许还超过了谷歌案例所蕴含的自由与管制之间的价值冲突。这是对中国国内排外思潮高涨和对外政策弥坚的一种感知，由于全球金融危机致使美欧经济尾大不掉，也把中国推到极其尴尬的世界舞台聚光灯下。
自负的中国官僚与蛮横的中方商业伙伴，现已成为CEO们宴会桌上的主要谈资。这些话题枯燥冗长，涉及：规章制度实施过程中有意而为的反复无常与黑箱作业；知识产权盗窃行为猖獗；国家通过工会与中共组织渗透到跨国集团内部；在产品标准和试验中作弊，明目张胆设置市场障碍；政治化的法庭和代理机构更偏袒本地企业；对WTO的要求进行创造性和有选择性的实施……不胜枚举。
在华外企界对中国人民及其来之不易的成就，心怀崇敬、珍爱有加。但是，一直在反问自己是否已被这个体制所蒙骗的高管们却不在少数。跨国集团一直是中国的中流砥柱，他们无奈把大量资金、技术、培训、源代码、最优秀的实践以及专利产品移交给其同床异梦的中方合资伙伴。他们注资办学、建孤儿院，参与灾后重建，设立海外奖学金，致力于各类扶贫项目。因中国市场的重要性对其而言过犹不及，中国却似乎毫不动容。进入中国市场愈发艰难，已成为当前最紧迫的关切。高瞻远瞩竟换来彻夜难眠，曾经的合作伙伴正在变成掠夺者——获得国家补贴的国企巨无霸用外方的技术和学识，生产价格低廉的产品与世界竞衡。
与此同时，中国政府和企业界如此心绪不宁、犹豫不决，实属罕见。安全感越低，越显傲慢自大。全球金融动荡和中国扶摇直上的国际地位，甩掉了谨慎严密的国家发展日程，而这是由嫌恶风险、一板一眼的中共领导层精心部署的。
中国国家主席胡锦涛和总理温家宝背负着巨大的压力，在其执政的最后两年，“如履薄冰、如临深渊”。他们力排众议，专注于确保GDP年增长率8%或者更高。中国普通大众皆满心欢喜，但中共领导层又对其过高的预期充满恐惧。40岁以下的中国人是实行独生子女政策的新一代，没有经历过毛泽东时期的贫穷和动乱。他们娇生惯养，缺乏耐心，要求严苛，把指数式增长视为生活基准，将信息的获取看做公民权。靠土办法发财致富的中国新贵们坚决反对进一步改革开放，他们决心阻碍国际竞争以继续图利。
余下时间，中国领导人整治地方腐败、污染扩散，改革岌岌可危的医疗体系和“碎片化”的社保制度，化解根深蒂固的产能过剩以及快速发展的人口老龄化问题，仅举几例。他们的精力已所剩无几，更没有经历和意愿要成为众望所归的世界领袖：远见卓识并胸怀坦荡，并不拘泥于中国自身的急切需求。
因此，无论中国人与否，都面临合情合理的挑战和能够理解的恐惧症。谷歌仅仅是这场愈演愈烈的纷争中的一个代表而已。实际上，它是中国与以美国为主要谈判者的西方发达国家之间的经济和政治动态的较量。这可没那么容易。中美都善于把国内弊政归咎于外方。两国那些指手画脚的政客和顿足捶胸的民族主义者，难以理性地讨论。然而，在情况失控之前，太平洋两岸的领导者们应从繁琐的国内事务中抽出身来，恢复中国与外企和发达国家之间日趋恶化的关系，现在是时候了。但通过谷歌搜索引擎定不能寻到答案：这是确凿无疑的。
作者简介：麦健陆先生现任安可顾问公司（APCO Worldwide）高级顾问，曾任中国美国商会会长，《十亿消费者——来自中国商界第一线的经验》一书的作者。
图文解说：
信息时代：北京的年轻中国网民
| English to Chinese: Would David Cameron be green in government?
General field: Social Sciences | Source text - English
Would David Cameron be green in government?
Robin Cook used to call the environment "the sleeping giant of British politics" – but he would never have expected an Old Etonian Tory toff to be the one to wake it up.
I first met Cook sharing a green platform with Arthur Scargill in the mid-1970s, something I used to enjoy irritating him by recalling when he reached the dignified rank of Foreign Secretary. Yet it was David Cameron who aroused the comatose leviathan, and clambered on to its back. It carried him through his leadership campaign, enabled him to win the uphill struggle to detoxify his party and even brought him victory his first local election campaign, controversially launched with a visit to the Arctic to view the effects of global warming and fought on the slogan "Vote Blue. Go Green".
But now, as our young hero has apparently been coasting downhill towards Downing Street, the giant has been far less on display. Has it been allowed quietly to go back to sleep? No, I am told. Cameron, it appears, is as green as ever. "I am incredibly surprised," confides one Tory grandee, "by the degree to which he takes this stuff seriously." And the preparations for government now being undertaken by the shadow cabinet are, at Cameron's insistence, putting the environment deep into policymaking.
Before he ran for the leadership, he had, as far as I could discover, shown no discernible interest in greenery. When, at the time, I asked for evidence of any past enthusiasm, I was told to read a long series of columns he had written for a newspaper website. I slogged through them all – and found nothing.
The issue was chosen, cynically, as a way of making the party seem modern, compassionate, young and electable. And it worked: polls found seven times as many people more likely to vote for Cameron because he promised to tackle global warming as the reverse.
But now, questioning the Tory leader reveals an level of knowledge and commitment unusual among politicians. In particular, he seems to have grasped that taking green measures can also benefit the economy, providing a new engine of growth. Surprisingly radical policies have been prepared on cutting carbon emissions, encouraging families and businesses to save energy, promoting renewables, expanding the railways and introducing "green tax reform" to shift the burden from work and income to pollution and waste.
Oliver Letwin, Cameron's policy chief, is equally keen, and George Osborne, though less obviously committed, raises no objections – though William Hague has kept a low profile on climate change. The Tory leader's top strategist and closest adviser, Steve Hilton, is convinced of the importance of green issues, as, importantly, is Cameron's wife Samantha.
Will it last through a general election and, if victorious, into government? After all, just weeks before the 1997 election, Robin Cook was promising Britain's "first truly green government", and look what happened to that.
Cameron retorts, with some justice, that his party has worked out its environmental policies far more thoroughly than New Labour ever did. It may also matter that, come the election, he may be facing an opponent with unexpected environmental credibility. Gordon Brown is putting more energy and commitment into sealing an international deal on climate change than any other leader. If it comes off, he will be able to claim much of the credit: if not, he should get plaudits for trying.
But how deep does the Tories' green streak run? One sympathetic backbencher says it is "paper thin" in Parliament, largely confined to Cameron and his inner circle. Professor Tom Burke, a close adviser to three Conservative environment secretaries in the 1990s, observes that while a party can get away with such differences in outlook in opposition, "you do have to resolve them in government".
Against that, the Tory grassroots are increasingly environmentally conscious: polls show them to be greener than average voters. "Our supporters," as one green Tory MP puts it, "are much nicer is than often believed."
Cameron's biggest black mark is that he sacked Peter Ainsworth – probably the most respected MP for his environmental record – as his shadow environment secretary in the last reshuffle, while retaining Alan Duncan, of all people. The ostensible reason was that his replacement, Nick Herbert, would get more media coverage, but the new boy has achieved measurably less. Some suspect that the real reason is that Ainsworth would have resigned rather than countenance any reneging in office.
If they are right, then maybe Cook's green giant will be left to slumber peacefully after all. But let's hope not. For his would be a welcome face at the Cabinet table in an age often castigated for its plethora of political pygmies.
| Translation - Chinese
卡梅伦会以环保为政吗？
英国前外交大臣罗宾•库克（Robin Cook）常把环境议题喻为“英国政坛沉睡的巨人”——但他从未料到，唤醒这位巨人的却是一个毕业于伊顿公学的纨绔子弟、一个托利党（Tory）的花花公子。
我第一次与库克的会面，是在上一个世纪70年代中期。那时他与英国工会和政党领导人阿瑟•斯卡吉尔（Arthur Scargill）共同主持一个环保论坛。后来库克身居高位担任外交大臣时，我常常回忆此事，虽然惹他恼怒，我却乐此不疲。然而，的的确确正是保守党党魁戴维•卡梅伦（David Cameron），他不仅唤醒了这头沉睡的庞然大物，还千辛万苦驾驭着它。这帮助卡梅伦度过了竞选活动的难关，使他能够赢得与党内异己的艰苦斗争，甚至让他在第一轮地方竞选活动中胜出。他还在争议声中发起了一次北极考察，去亲眼见识全球变暖带来的影响，并打出“选蓝行绿”（Vote Blue, Go Green）的口号为之奋战。
但是，正当我们年轻的英雄一帆风顺朝唐宁街(Downing Street)进发的时候，巨人却几乎销声匿迹。难道巨人被获准悄悄回去睡觉了吗？我知道：这是绝不可能的！卡梅伦依旧矢志不渝，高举绿色环保大旗。一位托利党权贵坦陈，“他对环保如此投入，令我惊讶得简直难以置信。”在卡梅伦的坚持下，目前，影子内阁在政府层面做的准备工作是将环保理念深深植入到政策的制定中去。
据我调查，在参与竞选之前，卡梅伦对温室效应的兴趣完全无迹可寻。那时，当我要收集一些能证明其竞选前热衷环保的材料时，有人推荐我去阅读他为一家报纸网站所撰写的长篇系列专栏。我潜心搜寻其字里行间，却未发现任何蛛丝马迹。
颇具嘲讽意味的是，保守党选择了环保话题，作为使其充满现代感、更富于同情心、朝气蓬勃、具有候选资格的途径，并且这一招确实凑效：民意调查显示，鉴于卡梅伦应对全球变暖的承诺，他有可能获得比之前高出7倍的民众支持率。
现在，对托利党党魁的质疑，却让他们显示出不同于其他政客的知识水平和决心。尤其是卡梅伦似乎早已成竹在胸：实行绿色环保政策将为经济增长提供新的引擎，这将有益于经济。令人惊讶的是，针对二氧化碳减排、鼓励家庭和商业机构节约能源、推广可再生能源、扩大铁路运输，推行“绿色税费改革”、进而把负担由工作和收入方面转向污染和垃圾制造方面等根本性政策均在紧锣密鼓的筹划之中。
保守党政策小组主席奥利弗•莱特温（Oliver Letwin）同样也对环保情有独钟。而保守党影子内阁财政大臣乔治•奥斯本（George Osborne）虽然没有公开承诺，但也未提出异议---尽管影子内阁外相威廉•海格（William Hague）对气候变化一直保持低调态度。托利党高层的首席战略家和最亲密的顾问史蒂芬•希尔顿（Steve Hilton）则坚信环保议题的重要性，同样重要的是，卡梅伦之妻萨曼莎（Samantha）也持此种观点。
环保议题会贯彻大选始终吗？如果保守党在大选中获胜，环保会被纳入政府的职能工作中吗？别忘了，仅仅在1997年大选的前几周，罗宾•库克承诺建设英国“首个真正的绿色政府”，现在看看，这到底都发生了什么？
卡梅伦不无偏颇地反驳说：与新工党相比，保守党正在制定的环保政策将更为彻底、更加缜密。还有一点，随着大选临近，卡梅伦将面对一个拥有出人意料的环保信誉的劲敌——现任首相戈登•布朗。为促成全球应对气候变化的新协议，布朗正在付出远比其他同僚更多的精力，许下更多的承诺。如果谈判顺利、协议达成，布朗将赢得众多公众信誉；如果协议流产、无果而终，他也会为付出的努力换回喝彩。
然而，托利党的绿色大旗究竟能走多远呢？一位持赞成观点的英国下议院普通议员表示，很大程度上，这仅仅局限在卡梅伦及其核心集团内部，在国会里的影响简直薄如蝉翼、微乎其微。曾于90年代担任过三届保守党环境事务大臣亲近顾问的汤姆•布克教授评论说，当一个政党是在野党的时候，可以侥幸避开政党内部在世界观层面的分歧，“但一旦你上台，就必须解决它们。”
与国会恰恰相反，托利党基层支持者们的环保意识却与日俱增：民调显示，他们比一般的选民更注重环保。正如一位支持环保的托利党国会议员指出，“我们的支持者比人们想象的更加友好善良”。
卡梅伦最大的败笔就在于，他在上次改组中解雇了任影子内阁环境秘书长的皮特•安斯沃斯（Peter Ainsworth），荐用艾伦•邓肯（Alan Duncan）为保守党议会下议院领袖。安斯沃斯论其出色的环保业绩是最受人尊崇的国会议员。表面看来，安斯沃斯的继任者——尼克•海博特（Nick Herbert）应该获得更多的媒体曝光率，然而这位刚刚上任的新官却鲜有建树。外界纷纷猜测，真正的原因是安斯沃斯宁愿辞职也不愿违背他的信念。
如果他们都是正确的，那么库克的环保议题这个绿色巨人将完完全全被搁置在一旁，安详入睡了。但是，让我们期望事实并非如此吧。在这样一个被抨击为充斥着政治侏儒的时代，他的面孔或许会成为国会圆桌旁受欢迎的那一张。
| English to Chinese: Breaking the cancer habit
General field: Medical | Source text - English
CANCER PREVENTION OUTLOOK
LIFESTYLE
Breaking the cancer habit
It’s the simple things in life that sometimes mean the most to people— and do the most good.
BY CASSANDRA WILLYARD
Drug companies spend billions of dollars developing high-tech therapies to deploy against cancer. Yet millions of people still die of the disease each year. Preventing cancer appears to be a far simpler proposition. The most effective steps to curb cancer are low-tech: get people to stop smoking and lose weight. Smoking, long known to be a risk factor, and obesity, more recently recognized as one, together account for roughly half of all cancer cases. But as anyone who has tried to kick the habit or lose a few pounds knows, both steps are easier said than done.
To have a real impact on cancer, health officials need to address the “causes of causes of cancer,” says Michael Marmot, an epidemiologist at University College London (UCL). That means finding new ways to curb smoking and obesity. “Simply telling people not to get fat is not very effective,” says Marmot. Policies that make unhealthy lifestyles more inconvenient and expensive, while making healthier ones easier and cheaper, can have a large impact. So can medical interventions. For example, researchers are developing new ways, such as the nicotine vaccine, that might help smokers quit for good.
EAT LESS, MOVE MORE
Many studies in the past couple of decades have examined the impact of dietary factors on cancer risk (see The omnivore’s labyrinth, page S22). How much we eat may be as important as what we eat. But overeating may be more important than choosing the right foods In a study that followed 900,000 adults for 16 years, researchers at the American Cancer Society (ACS) found a significant association between body mass index and higher mortality owing to cancers of the oesophagus, colon, liver, gall-bladder, pancreas, kidney, breast (in women), uterus, cervix, ovary, prostate and stomach (in men). In 2003, the ACS estimated that excess weight could account for one in seven cancer deaths among men and one in five among women in the United States.
Since 2003, the evidence linking body weight and cancer has grown stronger. One of the most comprehensive efforts to examine this relationship came from the World Cancer Research Foundation and the American Institute for Cancer Research in Washington DC. At UCL, Marmot led a team of 21 scientists to review some 7,000 related studies, and again found a convincing link between excess weight and many cancers. They found a link between excess body fat and a variety of cancers. They recommended that people strive to be as lean and active as possible, and that they avoid sugary drinks.
Researchers have yet to fully understand how being overweight can cause cancer. The mechanism likely depends on the type of malignancy. For example, abdominal fat presses on the stomach, causing acid to splash up into the oesophagus. That acid leads to tissue damage, which can lead to oesophageal cancer. Oestrogen, produced by fat cells, appears to play a role in endometrial cancer and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. “Obese women have about three times the circulating level of oestrogens as lean women,” says Walter Willet, a prominent nutrition researcher at Harvard University.
Obesity can also cause the body to become less responsive to insulin. To compensate, the pancreas churns out more of this potent growth factor. Researchers posit that excess insulin can cause cancer cells to proliferate. Diabetics treated with the drug metformin, which lowers insulin levels, appear to have a lower risk of many cancers, including pancreatic and breast. It is unclear, however, whether metformin’s anti-cancer activity is related to insulin2.
Recent research has confirmed the complementary effect: losing weight can make a person less prone to cancer. Researchers in Sweden, for example, tracked two groups of 2,000 overweight men and women and found that bariatric surgery cuts the risk of cancer in women by 42% (ref. 3). Another study found that gastric bypass cut the risk of developing cancer by 24% and the risk of dying of cancer by 46% (ref. 4). (In both studies, this trend held only for women, not men, which suggests weight loss may have a particularly large impact on breast and endometrial cancers5.)
Regular exercise can cut cancer risk as well— and not just because it often leads to reduced weight6. “We’ve been able to tease out the individual effects of being physically active versus being overweight,” says Christine Friedenreich, a cancer epidemiologist and leader of population health research at University of Calgary in Canada. One theory is that active people tend to digest food faster. “Being physically active may decrease the chance of any carcinogenic products that happen to be going through the colon to have contact with the mucosal lining,” she explains. Similarly, better lung function in fit individuals could limit their exposure to airborne carcinogens. Hormones might also be a factor. Friedenreich and her colleagues found that postmenopausal Canadian women who walked for about three hours a week had lower oestrogen levels after a year than sedentary women7.
HEALTHY INFLUENCES
Providing consumers with better nutritional information may help them choose a more nutritious diet and avoid the obesity that raises their cancer risk. Toward that end, David Katz, director of the Yale-Griffin Prevention Research Center, has developed an algorithm for ranking foods according to their overall healthiness. The formula, NuVal, accounts for ingredients including salt, vitamins, saturated fat, fibre, sugar, cholesterol, protein, as well as overall calorific value. It assigns each food a score between one and a hundred8. The higher the value, the healthier the food (pineapple 99, butter cookie 1). According to Katz, NuVal has been used to score more than 90,000 foods.
Economic incentives can also change nutritional behaviour. In January 2011, Wal-Mart, the largest grocer in the United Sates, pledged to lower the price of fruits and vegetables, cut salt and sugar content in packaged foods, and stop selling any foods containing trans-fats within the next five years.
In 2010, the US Department of Agriculture launched a pilot study to see if cutting the price of fruit and vegetables would prompt low-income families to eat more of them and reduce their consumption of less healthy foods. The 1,500 participating families will get 30 cents added to their food benefit card balance for every dollar they spend on fruits and vegetables. The study is set to begin in late 2011 and wrap-up in 2013.
An alternative strategy would be to tax unhealthy foods, like soda and sugary sports drinks. Denmark already has such a tax. “They put a very high tax on sugar-sweetened beverages, a medium tax on diet beverages, and no tax on water and low-fat milk,” says Barry Popkin, a nutritionist at the University of North Carolina’s Interdisciplinary Center for Obesity.
A study published in February 2011 hints that taxing the unhealthy foods might be the best approach. Researchers at the State University of New York at Buffalo recruited 42 mothers to shop at a simulated supermarket stocked with pictures of everything from whole wheat bread to bananas to carbonated sweet drinks. Each participant was given $22.50 and asked to select a week’s worth of food. During five ‘shopping trips’, the researchers manipulated the prices of the foods, first charging prices comparable to a local grocery store, then lowering the price of healthy foods by 12.5% to 25%, and then hiking the prices of unhealthy foods by roughly the same amount. Result: raising the price of junk food lowered the total calories purchased. Healthy food subsidies, on the other hand, increased the total amount of fat, protein and carbohydrates bought. The participants spent the money saved to buy junk food9.
Neither taxes nor subsidies will end the obesity epidemic. But just because an intervention doesn’t lead to weight loss doesn’t mean it’s a dud, says Katz. He compares obesity to a flood. Each intervention, he says, is a sandbag in a much-needed levee. “No one of them by itself can stop the flood,” he says. “Only when we’ve done enough of these things in enough places will they add up to be a levee that’s higher than the floodwaters.”
Smoking still accounts for a third of all cancer deaths. And tobacco, unlike most foods, is addictive. So kicking the habit often requires medical intervention.
Most over-the-counter smoking-cessation therapies, such as the nicotine patch and nicotine gum, curb the symptoms of withdrawal by providing small doses of nicotine. Alternative strategies aim to make smoking less addictive. Varenicline, for example, a drug approved in 2006 and marketed as Chantix, partially binds to the nicotine receptor in the brain. It is designed to block nicotine, and also to partially activate the receptor. The idea is to prevent smokers from getting a rush if they smoke, but to give them enough dopamine to help curb cravings. And NicVax, an antismoking vaccine in phase III trials, prompts the body to raise an immune response against nicotine. “When someone smokes, the antibody attaches itself to the nicotine molecule,” says Dorothy Hatsukami, a specialist in tobacco addiction at the University of Minnesota’s Masonic Cancer Center. Bound together, the two molecules are too large to penetrate the blood brain barrier. “It reduces the level of nicotine that can enter the brain at any one time,” says Hatsukami, who is leading one of the NicVax trials.
Anti-smoking regulations could have an even greater impact on cancer. In 2009, US lawmakers gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) unprecedented power to regulate tobacco. The FDA now prohibits all flavourings, with the exception of menthol, and requires tobacco product manufacturers to register their products with the FDA. The statute also gives the FDA the power to limit the amount of nicotine in tobacco products. In theory, the agency could cut nicotine to levels that would “render the products less or non-addictive,” says Clifford Douglas, a tobacco control specialist who heads the University of Michigan Tobacco Research Network. Such a restriction could have an enormous impact. “If one wants to cut seriously into the tobacco epidemic, they must deal with nicotine.” Local regulations can play a role as well. Cities all over the world have banned smoking in bars and restaurants, but some are going a step further. In February 2011, city councillors in New York City voted to ban smoking in public parks, beaches and boardwalks.
With respect to both obesity and smoking, part of the battle involves convincing people that much cancer is, in fact, avoidable. That could prove challenging, Marmot says. “I think most people think cancer is an act of God or Darwin.”
Cassandra Willyard is a freelance writer in New York.
| Translation - Chinese
观点：癌症预防
生活方式
改变致癌习惯——
这些日常生活中琐碎的平凡小事，却对我们举足轻重。
卡桑德拉•威亚德（CASSANDRA WILLYARD）撰文
医药公司花费数十亿美元用于研发治疗癌症的高科技疗法。然而，每年仍有数百万人死于癌症。预防癌症似乎是更加简单的建议。其实遏制癌症最有效的方法并不具备高技术含量，仅仅是让人们戒烟减肥而已。人们早就知道吸烟是致癌的危险因素之一，肥胖最近则被认为是另一个危险因素，吸烟和肥胖所导致的癌症约占所有癌症病例的一半。但任何曾经尝试过戒烟或减重的人都明白，这两个方法真是说时容易做时难。
英国伦敦大学学院（University College London，UCL, the United Kingdom）的流行病学家迈克尔•玛莫特（Michael Marmot）指出，为了真正遏制癌症的发病，卫生官员需要解决“造成致癌因素的罪魁祸首”。其言下之意是应找到控制吸烟和肥胖的新措施。玛莫特教授说，“仅仅告诉人们不要长胖并不是很有效的”。 如果某些政策能使不健康的生活方式更加不便且成本愈高，而使健康的生活方式愈加便利与价廉，那么这样的政策就会产生较大影响。同样，医疗干预也能发挥巨大作用。例如，研究人员正在研发有可能帮助吸烟者永久戒烟的新途径，如注射尼古丁疫苗。
少吃、多动
在过去数十年中，许多研究已经调查了饮食因素对罹癌风险的影响（参见“杂食动物的迷宫”，S22页）。我们吃多少与吃什么同样重要。但饮食过量可能比选择正确的食物种类更加重要。美国癌症协会（American Cancer Society，ACS）的研究人员从一项对90万名成年人进行了16年的调查研究中发现，在由食管癌、结肠癌、肝癌、胆囊癌、胰腺癌、肾癌、女性乳腺癌、子宫癌、宫颈癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌和男性胃癌所引起的更高死亡率与身体质量指数（body mass index， BMI）之间存在着重要关联。美国癌症协会曾于2003年估计，在美国，每七名死于癌症的男性和每五名死于癌症的女性中，就有一名患者体重超重。
自2003年以来，体重与癌症相关的证据日益增强。对该关联进行的最全面考察之一是由世界癌症研究基金会（World Cancer Research Foundation）以及位于美国华盛顿特区的美国癌症研究所(American Institute for Cancer Research，Washington DC，the United States)实施的。在伦敦大学学院，玛莫特领导了一个由21名科学家组成的科研小组，审查了大约7000项相关研究，他再次发现体重超重与多种癌症之间存在着令人信服的关联。该研究小组还发现，体内多余脂肪与多种癌症有关。研究人员建议,人们应设法尽可能保持体态苗条、身心活跃，并避免摄入含糖饮料。
研究人员尚未完全了解体重超重是如何致癌的。体重超重致癌的发病机制可能有赖于恶性肿瘤的类型。例如，腹部脂肪压迫胃部，使得胃酸反流入食管。胃酸可引起组织损伤，从而导致食管癌。脂肪细胞所产生的雌激素似乎在绝经后的女性所罹患的子宫内膜癌和乳腺癌中发挥了作用。美国哈佛大学(Harvard University, the United States)的著名营养学研究员沃尔特•威利特(Walter Willet)说，“就血液循环中的雌激素水平而言，肥胖女性是苗条女性的三倍左右”。
肥胖也会降低人体对胰岛素的敏感性。为了代偿胰岛素的作用不足，胰腺大量分泌胰岛素这种强有力的生长因子。研究人员假设，过量的胰岛素会引起癌细胞增殖。在使用降低胰岛素水平的药物二甲双胍(metformin)进行治疗的糖尿病患者中，罹患多种癌症的风险似乎较低，其中包括胰腺癌和乳腺癌。但目前尚不清楚二甲双胍的抗癌活性是否与胰岛素有关2。
近期研究已经证实了这种互补效应：即，减轻体重能降低人们罹患癌症的风险。例如，瑞典研究人员跟踪研究了两组2000名体重超重的男性和女性，他们发现，减肥手术将女性罹患癌症的风险降低了42％（见参考文献3）。另一项研究发现，胃旁路手术将患癌风险和死于癌症的风险分别降低了24％和46％（见参考文献4）。（在上述两项研究中，这种趋势仅仅体现在女性而非男性中，这表明体重减少可能对乳腺癌和子宫内膜癌具有特别巨大的影响5。）
有规律的锻炼也可以降低患癌风险，这不仅仅是因为运动通常可以减轻体重6。加拿大卡尔加里大学(University of Calgary, Canada)的癌症流行病学家和人口健康研究的领导人克里斯蒂娜•弗里德里希博士(Christine Friedenreich)表示，“我们已能弄清楚身体活跃与体重超重对个体的影响。”一种理论认为，身体活跃的人往往能更快地消化食物。她解释说，“保持身体活跃也许能降低所有致癌物质碰巧经过结肠而接触粘膜的机会。”同样，健康个体所具备的较好的肺功能, 可以减少该个体暴露于空气中致癌物质的机会。激素也可能是一个因素。弗里德里希博士及其同事发现，每周行走约三小时的绝经后加拿大女性与久坐不动的女性相比，前者的雌激素水平在一年后低于后者7。
健康影响因素
为消费者提供更好的营养资讯,可能会帮助他们选择更有营养的饮食，以避免因肥胖而增加患癌的风险。为此，美国耶鲁—格里芬预防研究中心主任大卫•卡茨博士(David Katz，Yale-Griffin Prevention Research Centre, the United States)根据食品的整体营养，设计了一种可对食品营养进行排名的算法。这个叫做NuVal的方程式将各种营养因素都考虑在内，其中包括盐、维生素、饱和脂肪、纤维素、糖、胆固醇、蛋白质以及总热量。它为每种食物设定的分数在一分至一百分之间8。分数越高，食物越健康（如，菠萝99分，黄油饼干1分）。据卡茨介绍，NuVal已为九万多种食物进行了评分。
经济激励措施也能改变人们选择营养食品的行为。今年一月，美国最大的零售商沃尔玛(Wal-Mart)承诺降低蔬菜和水果的价格，减少包装食品中盐和糖的含量，并在未来五年内停止销售任何含有反式脂肪的食品。
美国农业部于2010年启动了一项试点研究，旨在调查降低水果和蔬菜的价格是否会促使低收入家庭食用更多的水果和蔬菜，并减少消费不太健康的食物。有1500户家庭参与了该项研究，每当这些家庭在水果和蔬菜上消费一美元时，其食物受益卡的余额就将增加30美分。此项研究准备于2011年末启动，2013年结束。
大部分非处方戒烟疗法均通过提供小剂量尼古丁以遏制尼古丁戒断症状，如尼古丁贴片和尼古丁口香糖。而尼古丁替代疗法旨在使吸烟的成瘾性更小。例如，于2006年获得批准的戒烟药品伐尼克兰（Varenicline，商品名：戒必适Chantix），可与大脑中的尼古丁受体进行部分结合。开发该药品的目的是阻断尼古丁与大脑中的尼古丁受体相结合，并部分激活该受体。这种想法是为了减弱吸烟者在吸烟时所获得的欣快感，但同时为他们提供足够的多巴胺（dopamine）进而抑制其吸烟的欲望。此外，正处于第三试验阶段的戒烟疫苗NicVax会刺激机体产生免疫反应以对抗尼古丁。美国明尼苏达大学共济会癌症中心的烟瘾专家多萝西•哈苏卡密（Dorothy Hatsukami，Masonic Cancer Centre，University of Minnesota，the United States）说，“吸烟时，抗体自身便吸附于尼古丁分子上。”由于这两个分子结合后分子量过大，因此不能透过血脑屏障。哈苏卡密博士领导了其中一项NicVax试验，她表示，“这种疫苗降低了任何一次进入大脑中的尼古丁水平。”
反吸烟法规对癌症甚至能产生更为巨大的影响。美国立法者于2009年赋予了美国食品和药品监督管理局（Food and Drug Administration, FDA, the United States）前所未有的管理烟草的权力。目前，该管理局对除薄荷醇外的所有调味料予以禁止，并要求烟草产品制造商在该局登记其产品。反吸烟法规还赋予了美国食品和药品监督管理局限制烟草产品中尼古丁含量的权力。烟草控制专家克利福德•道格拉斯是美国密歇根大学烟草研究网络(Clifford Douglas, University of Michigan Tobacco Research Network, the United States)的负责人，他认为，在理论上，该管理局可以将烟草中的尼古丁含量降至“使烟草产品成瘾性更小或无成瘾性”的水平。这种限制可能产生非常巨大的影响。“如果人们想真正控制烟草流行，他们必须与尼古丁做斗争。”地方法规也能发挥作用。世界各地的城市已经禁止在酒吧和餐馆吸烟，有些城市甚至做得更加彻底。今年二月，纽约市市议员投票通过了禁止在公共公园、海滩和木板路上吸烟的法令。
这场针对肥胖和吸烟的战役还包括另一部分工作，那就是使人们明白实际上很多癌症是可以避免的。玛莫特说，这项工作可能具有挑战性，“我想大多数人都认为癌症乃天意所为或是自然选择的结果。”
卡桑德拉•威亚德（CASSANDRA WILLYARD）是美国纽约的自由撰稿人
| English to Chinese: The big C — for Chemoprevention
General field: Medical | Source text - English
OUTLOOK
CANCER PREVENTION
PERSPECTIVE
The big C — for Chemoprevention
Drugs to prevent cancer are clearly possible despite some early missteps, says Michael B. Sporn. Restoring the cooperative ethos of decades past will help get us there.
When a complex system starts to dysfunction, it is generally best to fix it early. The alternative often means delaying until the system has degenerated into a disorganized, chaotic mess — at which point it may be beyond repair. Unfortunately, the general approach to cancer has ignored such common sense. The vast majority of cancer research is devoted to finding cures, rather than finding new ways to prevent disease.
The results of these skewed priorities are plain to see: forty years after President Richard Nixon declared war on cancer, the death tolls from most common forms of cancer in the United States have not fallen. It’s true that for some cancer types, mortality rates (adjusted for population size) have dropped during these decades, but there are huge, unhappy exceptions: mortality rates for lung and pancreatic cancer have stayed level since 1970, and the total number of US deaths each year from those diseases has doubled1.
Looking at these discouraging statistics, it is clear that something needs to change. We have been looking at the very nature of cancer in the wrong way. Breast cancer doesn’t begin when a lump is first felt or detected by mammogram. All the common epithelial cancers (lung, colorectal, breast, prostate, pancreas and ovary), which account for the majority of deaths, have a long latency period — often 20 years or more. By the time they are clinically detect-able, the cells in such carcinomas may harbour hundreds of mutations in different genes2. These cells provide no simple, single target for therapy. In contrast, during the long latency period, there is ample opportunity to use multi-functional, multi-targeted preventive drugs that block the development of invasive and metastatic disease.
That’s the basic idea of cancer chemoprevention (see First line of defence, page S5): to arrest or reverse the progression of pre-malignant cells towards full malignancy, using physiological mechanisms that do not kill healthy cells. In experimental animals, it is now possible to prevent the onset of cancer in almost all the common organs in which human carcinoma occurs. Even more importantly, chemoprevention has now been validated in people. One class of drugs, known as selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), can deliver as much as a five-fold reduction in incidence of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer in women. These compounds — most notably tamoxifen, raloxifene and lasofoxifene — have the added benefit of sup-pressing osteoporosis3. Fenretinide, for which we have 15 years’ worth of data, provides significant prevention of breast cancer in premenopausal women4. Two anti-androgenic agents, finasteride and dutasteride, have been shown to be effective at reducing incidence of prostate cancer in long-term clinical trials5.
And yet we have a paradox: within the world of clinical oncology, chemoprevention of cancer is perceived to be a failure. As a result of some poorly designed and executed clinical trials over the past decade, scepticism abounds about the practicalities of chemoprevention. This harsh assessment is the conventional wisdom among groups as diverse as the pharmaceutical industry, the hospital establishment, the insurance industry, women’s advocacy groups and the clinical oncology community itself. Of particular disappointment to many advocates of chemoprevention has been the general lack of enthusiasm from large pharmaceutical firms, as exemplified by the recent decisions of two major companies to curtail further development of lasofoxifene and arzoxifene, another highly promising SERM6. Many factors have contributed to this negativity, including difficult regulatory approvals, duration of patent protection and the omnipresent fear of liability in treating supposedly healthy people with drugs.
But attitudes toward chemoprevention need to be re-examined. Most fundamental is the bizarre misperception that people are ‘healthy’ until they have actual symptoms of invasive cancer, the corollary being that it is unwise and perhaps unethical to give a preventive drug to a healthy person. In reality, however, a person harbouring a pre-malignant lesion is not healthy, in spite of the absence of symptoms. Many of these people will go on to develop life-threatening cancers. The barn in which hay is smoldering before it bursts into flames is not a safe place.
Another canard is that cancer prevention efforts are not cost-effective. The argument is that the number of lives saved with a preventive drug would be too small with respect to the total number of people who need treatment. But this is a curious perspective. The number of houses destroyed by fire is trivial compared with the total number of houses, and yet almost every homeowner insures against fire. The conceptual problem here is that everyone doesn’t die of cancer in a short period; this is a lifetime problem.
There is a simple answer: we should stop doing clinical chemoprevention trials in large populations of people at relatively low risk, and instead focus on cohorts at the highest risk. There are many such groups: women with BRCA mutations that can lead to breast and ovarian cancer, people with premalignant pancreatic lesions and those with severe pre-malignant lung lesions (especially in current or former heavy smokers). Chemoprevention trials on such groups will provide much more definitive results and with much less effort.
More broadly, the elevation of cancer prevention requires several actions. First, we need a massive educational effort to encourage the general public — not just special interest groups — to support prevention efforts. This has been very successful in cardiology; indeed, the pharmaceutical industry spends huge amounts of money on educational and advertising efforts to promote chemoprevention of cardiovascular disease with statins and anti-platelet agents. Unfortunately, these companies seem unwilling to similarly promote cancer chemoprevention.
In addition, we need to be vigilant about the safety of the preventive drug testing regimen. Thus, we should build in ‘rest periods’ in clinical chemoprevention trial design. Many drugs used for chemotherapy have severe toxicities if used long term, so rest periods are necessary and routinely used. Although, as a class, chemopreventive drugs are much less toxic, rest periods would make relatively safe drugs even safer. Moreover, drugs need to show extensive efficacy in animal experiments before undergoing human trial — wisdom that was forgotten in the failed clinical trials of beta-carotene, selenium and tocopherol.
Regulatory accommodations will also help. The Food and Drug Administration still forbids the use of two experimental drugs in clinical prevention trials, in spite of the fact that there is overwhelming evidence that combinations can be much safer and more effective than single agents7. Further appreciation and understanding of the concept of ‘risk’ is also essential. For new drugs, the proper comparison is not risk versus benefit but rather risk versus risk8 — that is, the risk of doing nothing (which may have a deadly outcome), versus the risk of taking a preventive drug for long periods. Oncologists could follow the lead of cardiologists, who have developed a handy scorecard that numerically quantifies a patient’s risk8.
On the basic science front, we must develop new multifunctional drugs that aim at entire networks in the body, rather than single targets9. We need further studies on the importance of epigenetics10 and the tumour microenvironment8 to develop chemopreventive drugs. The tumour microenvironment, with all of its stromal and inflammatory cells, is an essential part of a carcinoma. Major advances over the past decade in these areas are leading to the development of important new drugs for cancer prevention8, 10.
So the challenges are numerous and daunting. There is great interest in personalized medicine (a wonderful goal) — but how can we do this successfully if the parameters we assess are exclusively genetic? Our environment, which continually changes, is reflected in epigenetic changes, inflammatory cells and the paracrine mediators they produce, as well as oxidative stress. All of these nongenetic parameters in turn can have profound effects on the structure and function of the genome. The ultimate justification for a preventive approach to control of cancer is that cancer prevention is an opportunity to provide a higher quality of symptom-free and pain-free life to people, rather than waiting until someone has invasive and metastatic cancer with all of its attendant suffering for both patient and family.
We can look to the past for guidance. Fifty years ago, a unique spirit of intense co-operation found cures for acute childhood leukaemia and Hodgkin’s disease, two previously fatal conditions. This triumphant work was achieved through highly collaborative efforts that tested multiple combinations of drugs. In the case of leukaemia, it took many years of research at multiple institutions to find the proper mix and dosage of vincristine, amethopterin, 6-mercaptopurine and prednisone (VAMP) that eventually enabled medical researchers Tom Frei and Emil Freireich and their team at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to find a truly effective combination therapy. This effort involved not only the NIH, but teams at universities, as well as at several major pharmaceutical companies. A similar multi-group effort shortly thereafter led to the conquest of Hodgkin’s disease.
Although we still have many cooperative groups for clinical trials, the all-hands-on-deck spirit that promoted the cure of childhood leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease has largely disappeared in an increasingly competitive world. Regulatory and legal issues, as well as academic competitiveness and companies’ perceived need to protect intellectual property, impede cooperation. To make substantial progress toward cancer prevention, we need to regain this lost ethos. ■
Michael B. Sporn is professor of pharmacology at Dartmouth Medical School in Hanover, New Hampshire.
e-mail: michael.b.sporn@dartmouth.edu
| Translation - Chinese
观点
癌症预防
视角
癌症——化学预防
迈克尔•贝•斯伯恩(Michael B. Sporn)说，尽管此前在癌症的药物预防领域出现了一些纰漏，但这种预防显然是可能的。重塑过去几十年的合作精神将助我们一臂之力、获得成功。
当一项复杂系统开始出现功能障碍时，通常情况下，最好尽早将之修复。另一种替代方法则是推迟拖延，直至该系统恶化成七零八落的一团乱麻：在这种情况下，该系统可能已无力回天。但令人遗憾的是，通常所采用的癌症疗法却忽视了这个常识。绝大多数癌症研究都致力于寻找治愈癌症的方法，而非探索预防癌症的新途径。
对癌症研究优先次序的歪曲所导致的结果显而易见：美国总统理查德•尼克松(Richard Nixon)对癌症宣战已经四十年了，但在该国，即使最常见癌症的死亡人数也未能下降。在这几十年中，虽然某些癌症类型的死亡率（人口规模调整）确实有所下降，但仍有一些重大例外使人忧心忡忡：自1970年以来，肺癌和胰腺癌的死亡率保持不变，此外，在美国，每年死于这两种癌症的人数已翻了一番1。
这些统计数字实在令人沮丧，很显然，改变势在必行。我们一直采用错误的方式探究癌症的真正本质。当患者第一次感觉到乳房肿块或者肿块被乳房X光摄影术所检测到时，乳腺癌已经开始。绝大部分死亡病例都是由常见的上皮癌所致，其中包括肺癌、结肠直肠癌、乳腺癌、前列腺癌、胰腺癌和卵巢癌，这些癌症的潜伏期很长，通常为20年或更长。当这些癌症在临床上被检测到时，癌细胞可能已经在不同的基因中拥有了数以百计的突变2。在这个阶段的治疗方法将不可能简单化一。相比之下，在漫长的潜伏期中，我们有足够多的机会使用多功能、多目标的预防性药物，以阻止侵入性疾病和转移性疾病的发生。
癌症化学预防的基本思路为：采用不杀死健康细胞的生理机制，阻止或扭转走向全部恶性肿瘤的癌前病变细胞的进展（参见第一道防线，第S5页）。在实验动物身上，目前已能在人类肿瘤发生的几乎所有常见器官内预防癌症的进攻。甚至更为重要的是，化学预防已经证明确实对人类有效。有一类药物叫做选择性雌激素受体调节剂（SERMs, selective estrogen receptor modulators），它能够使女性雌激素受体阳性乳腺癌的发病率降低高达五倍。特别是化合物三苯氧胺(tamoxifen）、雷洛昔芬(raloxifene)和拉索昔芬(lasofoxifene)等选择性雌激素受体调节剂，具备了抑制骨质疏松症的额外益处3。我们获得了使用芬维A胺（Fenretinide）长达15年的有效数据，该药有助于绝经前女性有效预防乳腺癌4。长期临床试验证明，非那雄胺(finasteride)和度他雄胺(dutasteride）等两种抗雄激素制剂能有效降低前列腺癌的发病率5。
然而，在临床肿瘤学界，人们认为癌症的化学预防是失败的，这是一个悖论。在过去十年中，一些设计不当和执行较差的临床试验使得人们对化学预防实用性的怀疑甚嚣尘上。这种苛刻的评价是诸如医药行业、医院、保险业、妇女宣传团体以及临床肿瘤学界本身等各种群体的传统之见。而其中大型制药企业普遍缺乏积极性，更是令许多化学预防拥护者特别失望，例如，两大医药公司最近决定缩减拉索昔芬(lasofoxifene)和阿佐普芬（arzoxifene）的进一步研发，然而后者却是另一个极具潜力的选择性雌激素受体调节剂6。这种消极性是由多种因素造成的，包括监管部门艰难的注册批准，专利保护期限,以及医疗人员在使用药物治疗据称是健康的人群时，对承担的责任所产生的无所不在的恐惧。
然而，我们需要重新审视对癌症化学预防的态度。最需要改变的是以下这种奇怪的误解：即，在侵入性癌的实际临床症状出现之前，人是“健康”的，以此类推，给健康人服用预防性药物既不明智也不道德。但在现实中，尽管有癌前病变的个人并未出现临床症状，但他仍不健康。这些癌前病变细胞将继续恶化成威胁生命的癌症。如果谷仓中的干草在燃烧之前阴燃，那么此谷仓绝非安全之地。
另一个谣传是癌症预防工作不具备成本效益。其认为，相对于需要治疗的总人数而言，使用预防性药物所拯救的生命数量微乎其微。但这是一个奇怪的角度。虽然与房屋总数相比，被烧毁的房屋数量微不足道，但几乎每位业主都有防火保险。此处涉及一个概念性问题，即，没人会在短期内死于癌症，这是关乎一辈子的问题。
答案其实很简单：我们应该停止在风险相对较低的人口中实施化学预防临床试验，而应该关注风险最高的人群。有很多这样的群体：如，携带可导致乳腺癌和卵巢癌的BRCA（乳腺癌基因）突变的女性，具有胰腺癌癌前病变的人群，以及具有严重肺部癌前病变的人群（特别是这些人群目前或曾经为瘾君子）。对上述人群进行癌症的化学预防试验将获取更加明确的研究结果，而且事半功倍。
从更广泛的角度而言，为提升癌症预防的水平，需采取一系列行动。首先，我们应开展大规模的教育活动，以鼓励普通大众、而非仅仅是特殊利益集团对癌症预防工作的支持。这在心脏科学的研究中已经取得巨大成功；事实上，医药行业在教育和宣传方面投入了巨资，旨在推动使用他汀类药物和抗血小板药物对心血管疾病进行化学预防。但这些制药公司似乎不愿如法炮制以促进癌症的化学预防，使人遗憾。
另外，我们需要警惕预防性药物测试方案的安全性。因此，我们必须在化学预防的临床试验设计中安排“休息期”。由于长期使用化疗药物会产生严重的毒副作用，因此休息期对化疗十分必要，且应定期采用。虽然化学预防药物作为一个毒性较少的药物类别，但休息期会使相对安全的药物更加安全。再者，只有当药物的广泛功效在动物实验中获得证实之后，才能实施人体试验：我们在失败的β胡萝卜素、硒和维生素E的临床试验中，曾经未能采取这个明智的做法。
监管调节大有裨益。美国食品和药物管理局(The Food and Drug Administration，FDA, the United States）仍然禁止在预防性临床试验中使用两种实验性药物，尽管有确凿的证据显示，药物组合会比单药更加安全有效7。此外，对“风险”概念的深入理解领会也必不可少。就新药而言，正确的比较不是风险与利益，而是风险与风险的对比8，即，不采取任何预防措施的风险（这可能会引起致命后果）与长期服用预防药物的风险进行对比。肿瘤学家可以效仿心脏学家所开发的记分卡，该记分卡能方便地使用数值量化患者的风险8。
在基础科学战线，我们必须研发各种多功能新药，这些药物旨在针对人体内的整个网络系统，而非各单一目标9。我们还需深入研究表观遗传学10和肿瘤微环境的重要性8，以促进化学预防药物的研发。肿瘤微环境及其所有基质细胞和炎性细胞是癌不可或缺的组成部分。表观遗传学和肿瘤微环境领域在过去十年所取得主要进展，均推动了多种针对癌症预防的重要新药的开发8，10。
由此看来，我们所面临的挑战真是数不胜数、令人望而生畏。虽然我们对个性化医学兴趣盎然，但假如我们所评估的参数仅仅涉及遗传，那么我们怎样才能成功走向这一美好的目标呢？瞬息万变的环境往往在后生变化、炎性细胞及其产生的旁分泌介质与氧化压力中体现出来。反过来，所有这些非遗传参数对基因组的结构和功能都具有深远的影响。采用预防方法控制癌症的最后一个理由是，癌症预防是为人们提供获得更高质量生活的一次机会，其既无症状也无痛苦；癌症预防绝非枉然等待，直至人们罹患侵入性癌和转移性癌时才采取的医疗措施，随之而来的是患者和家属所承受的锥心之痛。
我们应以史为鉴。五十年前，一种密切合作的独特精神找到了治愈儿童急性白血病和霍奇森病的方法，这两种疾病在此前均是致命的。研究的成功离不开测试多种药物组合时的高度协作努力。以白血病为例，无数机构经过多年潜心钻研，找到了长春新碱、氨甲蝶呤、6-巯基嘌呤和强的松的合适组合与准确用量，即白血病VAMP治疗方案（vincristine, amethopterin, 6-mercaptopurine and prednisone），这帮助医学研究人员汤姆•弗雷（Tom Frei）和埃米尔•弗赖雷克（Emil Freireich）及其在美国国立卫生研究院（NIH，National Institutes of Health， the United States）的研究团队最终发现了真正有效的组合治疗方案。此项研究不仅包括美国国立卫生研究院的努力，还与数所大学的科研团队和几大制药公司的支持密不可分。之后不久，类似的多团队共同钻研一举攻克了霍奇森病。
虽然许多协作团队仍然致力于临床试验，但在此竞争日益激烈的社会里，那种万众一心、众志成城、共同推动治愈儿童白血病和霍奇森病的精神已消失殆尽。政府监管和法律问题，大学的学术竞争力，以及制药公司保护知识产权的需求，都成了阻碍合作开展的绊脚石。为了在预防癌症领域取得重大进展，我们必须重拾那已经失去的合作精神。■
迈克尔•贝•斯伯恩是美国新罕布什尔州汉诺威达特茅斯医学院的药理学教授（Dartmouth Medical School,Hanover,New Hampshire,the United States）。
电子邮件：michael.b.sporn @ dartmouth.edu
| English to Chinese: Gallstone Disease
General field: Medical | Source text - English
Gallstone Disease
Most gallstone-related disease presents with pain, located typically in the epigastrium or abdominal right upper quadrant. The character of the pain varies according to the diagnosis; in most cases, it is acute and intermittent. The severity ranges from very severe pain that requires hospital admission to moderately severe pain that can be managed at home. For the less severe group, gallstone disease tends to be investigated from the outpatient clinic. Less commonly, gallstone disease presents as jaundice caused by a stone passing into and obstructing the common bile duct. Non-acute upper abdominal pain is a common cause of surgical referral, accounting for up to 7% of outpatient referrals in a general hospital. Of these, about half will be diagnosed as having gallstone disease. Furthermore, about 25% of elective abdominal operations on adults in general hospitals are performed for gallbladder disease.
Investigation of Gallbladder Pathology
Investigation for gallbladder disease aims to demonstrate the presence of stones and signs of chronic gallbladder inflammation. Ultrasonography is the mainstay of investigation but cholecystography is occasionally employed.
Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is reliable for identifying stones in the gallbladder and increased gallbladder wall thickness (caused by inflammation or fibrosis). Ultrasound provides a simple and accurate means of demonstrating dilatation of the common duct system, which often indicates distal duct obstruction. Unfortunately, it is unreliable for identifying bile duct stones directly, particularly at the lower end. Ultrasound has the great advantage of being suitable for the seriously ill or jaundiced patient.
Oral cholecystography
Oral cholecystography has now largely been superseded by ultrasonography. It provides a different perspective by showing gallbladder function and only incidentally revealing stones. It involves ingestion of contrast medium which is absorbed, excreted by the liver and then radiographically demonstrated in the extrahepatic biliary system. A radiograph of the biliary area may demonstrate stones, although only about 10% of all stones are radiopaque. It may occasionally show calcification in the pancreas (indicating previous pancreatitis), or gallbladder calcification.
Chronic Symptoms Suggesting Gallbladder Disease
Many patients are referred with a long history of almost daily pain which is poorly localised in the right upper quadrant or epigastrium. It is often accompanied by nausea or even vomiting. The pain may be exacerbated by large or fatty meals and may radiate around towards the back. The symptoms are often rather vague and ill-defined; this probably explains why patients often delay consulting a doctor. Physical examination rarely reveals more than vague upper abdominal tenderness.
Most of these patients turn out not to have gallstones on ultrasonography. The most frequent diagnosis is irritable bowel syndrome but the differential diagnosis includes peptic ulcer disease, urinary tract infection and chronic constipation. Asymptomatic gallstones are a common incidental finding and it sometimes takes fine clinical judgement to decide whether cholecystectomy is likely to cure the symptoms. When symptoms are characteristic of gallbladder disease, no special investigations other than ultrasonography are required. When the symptoms are less clear-cut, a more extensive search is necessary, perhaps including upper gastrointestinal endoscopy.
| Translation - Chinese
胆石症
大部分与胆结石相关的疾病都会出现疼痛，疼痛通常位于上腹部或腹部右上象限。根据临床诊断的不同，疼痛的特点也有差异，在大部分情况下，疼痛呈急性和间歇性发作。疼痛的严重程度可分为需要入院治疗的非常剧烈的疼痛，以及可在家处理的中度剧烈的疼痛。对于那些疼痛不太剧烈的患者而言，胆石症往往可在门诊做检查治疗。在胆石症中，由于结石下行阻塞胆总管引起黄疸，但这并不常见。非急性的上腹疼痛是外科转诊的常见原因，在一所综合医院的门诊转诊中，其比例高达7%。在这些外科转诊的患者中，约有一半将被诊断为患有胆石症。此外，在综合医院，为成人患者施行的择期腹部手术中，大约25%是胆囊疾病手术。
胆囊病理学的临床实验室检查
胆囊疾病的临床实验室检查旨在显示是否存在结石和慢性胆囊炎症的体征。超声检查是胆囊疾病临床试验室检查的主要手段，但偶尔也会使用胆囊造影术。
超声检查
超声检查对于证实胆囊内结石和胆囊壁增厚（由炎症或纤维化所致）十分可靠。超声提供了一种显示胆道系统扩张的检查手段，该手段既简单又准确，胆道系统扩张常常提示胆管远端梗阻。但遗憾的是，超声检查对于直接证实胆管结石却并不可靠，尤其是当结石位于胆总管下端时。超声的巨大优势就是适用于重症患者或黄疸患者。
口服胆囊造影术
目前，口服胆囊造影术已在很大程度上为超声检查所取代。口服胆囊造影术通过显示胆囊的功能，以及仅在偶然的情况下发现结石，从而为诊断胆囊疾病提供了不同的检查方法。口服胆囊造影的过程如下：口服可被人体吸收的胆囊造影剂，其经肝脏排泄进入胆道，然后通过X线摄影，便能显示出肝外胆管系统。虽然在所有的结石中仅有大约10%不透X射线，但是胆道区域的X线照片可以显示胆结石的存在。口服胆囊造影术可能偶尔还会显示胰腺钙化（提示曾经患过胰腺炎）或者胆囊钙化。
提示胆囊疾病的慢性临床症状
许多患者具有几乎每日发作疼痛的长期病史，这种疼痛在腹部右上象限或上腹部定位不明，因而转诊。疼痛常伴有恶心、甚至呕吐。大量进餐或脂餐饮食可能会导致疼痛加剧，疼痛还会放射到背部。临床症状通常是相当模糊且不明确的，这或许可以解释患者经常延误就诊的原因。体格检查除了显示不明确的上腹部压痛之外,很难有其它发现。
上述大部分患者通过超声检查证明并未有结石。最常见的临床诊断是肠易激惹综合征，但是，临床鉴别诊断还应包括消化道溃疡疾病、尿路感染和慢性便秘。无症状的胆结石通常是被偶然发现的，有时需要进行综合临床评价，以便决定是否胆囊切除术有可能治愈上述临床症状。当患者的临床症状符合胆囊疾病的特点时，除了超声检查外，不需要做其他特殊的临床实验室检查。如果患者的临床症状不太典型，那么有必要进行更加全面的检查，其中也许会包括上消化道内窥镜检查。
| English to Chinese: HOW TO ASSEMBLE THE ANEMOMETER
General field: Tech/Engineering | Source text - English
HOW TO ASSEMBLE THE ANEMOMETER
Build the rotating assembly
1. The three wind cups secure to the 5cm rotating cap using 10cm long screws. Slip a nylon washer on a 10cm screw, then push the screw through one of the holes into a wind cup. Slip on another nylon washer, then thread two hex nuts about 4cm on the screw. Slip on another nylon washer, then push the screw through the other hole and out of the wind cup. Slip another nylon washer on the screw and thread another hex nut on the screw. Repeat these two steps for the other two wind cups.
2. To attach a wind cup to the 5cm rotating cap, thread a hex nut about 1cm on a 10cm screw, then slide on an internal tooth lock washer. Thread the screw into one of the holes in the side of the 5cm rotating cap. On the inside of the rotating cap, slip an internal tooth lock washer onto the screw, then thread on a hex nut. Adjust the screw so the end of the screw is flush with the side of the nut.
3. Remove the inside nut. Apply a tiny amount of thread locking adhesive to the screw for both the inside nut and the outside nut. Again install the inside nut and make sure the end of the screw is flush with the side of the nut. Tighten both the inside and the outside nuts onto the rotating cap so that the wind cup is secure and adjust so that the wind cup is vertical. Repeat these two steps for the other two wind cups.
Install and adjust the rotating assembly
a. Set the rotating assembly on a table and adjust all three wind cups as necessary so they are exactly vertical.
b. Remove one nut from the magnetic switch. Adjust the remaining nut to about 2.5cm from the end of the magnetic switch. Install the switch through the hole in the 3.5cm stationary cap with a flat side of the nut adjacent to the side of the stationary cap. Adjust the nut position as necessary so that the switch extends 1.5cm beyond the top of the stationary cap. Secure the magnetic switch in place with the remaining nut, tightening gently.
Caution: Tightening with too much force bends the magnetic switch case and may crack it. If you are concerned about the switch coming loose, after completing the next three steps put a dab of epoxy adhesive between the nuts and the screw threads on the magnetic switch.
1) Slide the 4.5cm screw through the ball bearing, flat washer and through the nylon spacer.
2) Thread the 4.5cm screw into the rotating cap. Tighten, but do not over tighten as it is possible to strip the screw threads in the rotating cap. Secure with the acorn nut.
3) Verify that the 5cm rotating cap turns freely, without rubbing on the 3.5cm stationary cap. Also verify that the magnetic switch does not hit the 10cm screws or nuts.
| Translation - Chinese
如何组装三杯式风速仪
组装旋转装置
1. 使用数个长10cm的螺丝，将三个风杯固定在直径5cm的旋转罩壳上。首先，在一个长10cm的螺丝上，套入一个尼龙垫圈，然后将螺丝穿过风杯上的一个孔，并将之推入风杯。再套上另一个尼龙垫圈，然后将两个六角螺母旋入螺丝约4cm处。接着，再套上一个尼龙垫圈，然后将此螺丝推入对侧孔内并穿出风杯。最后，在螺丝上套入一个尼龙垫圈，并旋入一个六角螺母。重复上述两个步骤组装其它两个风杯。
2. 为了将风杯安装到直径5cm的旋转罩壳上，首先需在一个长10cm的螺丝的大约1cm处，旋入一个六角螺母，再套上一个内齿锁紧垫圈。然后将此螺丝穿进直径5cm的旋转罩壳上的一个孔内。在旋转罩壳内侧，将一个内齿锁紧垫圈套在螺丝上，接着旋入一个六角螺母。调整螺丝使螺丝端头与螺母外侧齐平。
3. 卸下内螺母。在螺丝上涂抹少许螺纹锁固密封胶，以便密封和固定内螺母及外螺母。重新安装内螺母，并确保螺丝端头与螺母外侧齐平。将内螺母和外螺母紧固到旋转罩壳上以固定风杯，同时调整内螺母和外螺母，使风杯处于垂直状态。重复上述两个步骤组装其它两个风杯。
安装和调整旋转装置
a. 将组装好的旋转装置放到平台上，三个风杯均需进行必要的调整，以使其完全垂直。
b. 从电磁开关上卸下一个螺母。调整余下未卸的那个螺母，使其处于距电磁开关底部约2.5cm的位置。安装电磁开关时，需将电磁开关穿入直径3.5cm的固定罩壳上的孔内，将螺母平的一面紧贴于固定罩壳上。对螺母的位置进行必要的调整，使电磁开关伸出固定罩壳顶部之外达1.5cm。用余下未卸的那个螺母将电磁开关固定到位，并轻轻拧紧。
警告：如果在拧紧螺母时用力过猛，则会使电磁开关外壳弯曲，并可能使其破裂。若是担心电磁开关变松，可于完成下述三个步骤之后，在电磁开关上的螺母和螺纹之间涂抹少许环氧胶粘剂。
1) 在长4.5cm的螺丝上依次套入滚珠轴承、平垫圈和尼龙垫片。
2) 将长4.5cm的螺丝穿入旋转罩壳。拧紧螺丝，但不要过紧，因为拧得过紧可能会导致旋转罩壳内的螺丝滑丝。用盖形螺母固定螺丝。
3) 确认直径5cm的旋转罩壳能够旋转自如，且不会摩擦到直径3.5cm的固定罩壳。同时确认电磁开关不会刮碰到长10cm的螺丝或螺母。
| English to Chinese: Culture in non-human species
General field: Science | Source text - English
Culture in non-human species
In 1999 Professor Andrew Whiten of the University of St Andrews, UK, teamed up with a group of luminaries in the world of primatology to catalogue chimp cultural traditions. Their combination of so much evidence, big-name authors and publication in Nature finally persuaded many animal behaviourists to embrace the idea that culture is not exclusively human. Before long, many more creatures had gained admission into the culture club, including whales and dolphins, orang-utans and capuchin monkeys. It is clear to see why social learning would be beneficial to these species. An animal that can copy behaviour already acquired by a compatriot can pick up new skills more quickly. This is particularly advantageous in fast-changing environments, where behaviours that are hard-wired into the genes would soon become redundant. But what about more "cognitively challenged" animals - would they have the brainpower to cash-in on social learning?
It has long been known that some birds learn their songs from one another, and there is now convincing evidence that they can use social learning beyond this one specific trait. Fish also learn techniques from their peers to navigate many of life's problems, from deciding what to eat and where to find food, to recognising and avoiding predators. Moving even further down the animal kingdom, there is even some evidence of social learning in insects including crickets and bees, leading some to claim that they, too, may have their own cultural traditions. It has now become clear that the fundamental building block of culture - social learning - is widespread in the animal kingdom. A conundrum remains, however. If a fish with a brain the size of a pea is sophisticated enough for social learning, how come millions of years of evolution have only produced a single species, humans, with cultural traditions as diverse as the tango and dim-sum?
One possible explanation comes from the growing realisation that learning by copying is not the unalloyed good it was once thought to be. Although social learning is an efficient way of picking up information, if used indiscriminately it can be arbitrary or even harmful. Is this where humans steal a march over other animals? Unlike many other species, we do not merely copy our parents, but instead consider everyone around us as potential role models. This should give us more opportunities to acquire useful traditions, provided that we can work out who is most likely to possess good information. Adults are known to choose the most successful, prestigious and knowledgeable individuals to copy. Even children are highly selective of who to trust, rather than blindly copying the people they know best, as had previously been believed. All of this is very sensible and clever, but there's a problem: every single one of these behaviours have previously been observed in fish. We might like to think that we are more discriminating than a fish, but perhaps what really sets us apart from other species is not who we learn from, but how we learn.
| Translation - Chinese
非人类物种的文化
1999年，英国圣安德鲁斯大学(University of St Andrews)的教授安德鲁•怀特(Andrew Whiten)与一批灵长类动物学领域的杰出科研人员合作，将黑猩猩的文化传统编纂为目录。该目录不仅提供了如此众多的证据，而且作者们大名鼎鼎，又在《自然》杂志上予以刊发，凡此种种，集于一身，最终说服了很多动物行为主义者接受这个观点：即,文化并非人类独享。此后不久，更多动物获准加入了文化俱乐部，其中包括鲸和海豚，猩猩和卷尾猴。至于为何社会学习对这些动物物种有益，目前已经一目了然。如果一只动物能够模仿其同伴已经习得的行为，它便可以更加迅速地掌握各种新技能。这种模仿行为在瞬息万变的环境中尤其有利，相比之下，那些植入基因的根深蒂固的行为却会在这种环境中很快成为累赘。但是，对于更多有“认知障碍”的动物来说，它们是否具备了利用社会学习的智力呢？
人们早就知道一些鸟儿彼此相互学习啼啭，现在也有令人信服的证据表明，鸟儿对社会学习的利用远不止于学习啼啭这一个具体的特点。鱼儿也向同伴们学习各种技巧以便找到解决诸多生存问题的办法，包括决定以何物为食、往何处觅食，以及怎样辨认和躲避捕食者。再把目光转向动物界内更为低等的动物，一些社会学习的证据甚至还存在于包括蟋蟀和蜜蜂在内的昆虫当中，这促使有些人声称昆虫可能也拥有自己的文化传统。社会学习作为文化的基本构成要素在动物界中十分普遍，目前这已是显而易见的事实。然而，仍有一道难解之谜题。如果大脑仅为豌豆大小的一条鱼就已经精密到足以进行社会学习的话，那么，为何数百万年的进化唯独造就了人类——这一拥有探戈舞和中式点心等不同文化传统的万物之灵呢？
一个对此谜题的可能解释源自于人们日益认识到，通过模仿进行学习并不像曾经所认为的那样有百利而无一害。尽管社会学习是获取信息的有效方法，但是，如果不加区别地随意利用，那么这种学习可能是恣意妄为或者甚至有害。难道人类就是在这一点上抢占了其它动物的先机而捷足先登的吗？我们与其它许多动物物种不同的是，我们并非仅仅模仿父母，而是将身边的每个人均视为潜在的学习榜样。如此一来，只要能够找到最可能拥有良好信息的人，我们便可以获得更多机会去学习有用的传统。成年人总是挑选最成功、最有名望和最博学之人进行模仿，这已为人所熟知。就连孩子们也会精挑细选他们所信任的人，这并非像先前人们所认为的那样，孩子们只是盲目模仿他们最了解的人。所有这些解释都很合理巧妙，但还存在一个问题：就我们这些行为中每一个单独的行为而言，科学家们已于此前在鱼类中观察到了。尽管我们也许会认为我们的识别能力比一条鱼强，但真正使我们有别于其它动物物种的特别之处可能并不在于我们向谁学习，而在于我们如何学习。
| English to Chinese: Intracellular Isoelectric Focusing in Eukaryotic Cells
General field: Science | Source text - English
Intracellular Isoelectric Focusing in Eukaryotic Cells
It has been suggested that eukaryotic cells use intracellular isoelectric focusing to move and concentrate proteins and other natural ampholytes, thus overcoming the limitations of intracellular processes by the slow rate of diffusion in cytoplasm. Isoelectric focusing can be used to separate different proteins on the basis of their differences in isoelectric points. An isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which an ampholyte (i.e. a molecule with both positively and negatively charged groups) such as a protein, has in sum a zero charge and therefore does not move in an electric field. In a mixture of ampholytes subjected to a strong enough electric field, a pH gradient spontaneously forms in which particular species of ampholytes (including proteins) occupy distinct zones in places with pH corresponding to their isoelectric point. The presence of pH gradient has been proven to exist in eukaryotic cells. It is obvious that if both electric field and pH gradient between centre and periphery exist in the interior of a cell, then all cytosolic ampholytes (e.g. proteins) must be sorted according to their pIs into concentric spherical layers. The existence of fine stratification of the cytoplasmic compartment by means of isoelectric focusing could have a great impact on the whole physiology of a cell.
The most effective way to increase the rate of any chemical reaction is by removing its product or products. This can easily be achieved by isoelectric focusing in a pH gradient or by any kind of electrophoretic transport when the enzymes and products of the reaction have different pI. Many metabolic processes start with chemical modification of a molecule of substrate or its covalent or non-covalent binding to a suitable carrier. This changes the pI of the reactant and can cause its electrophoretic transport to a place of maximum concentration of enzymes participating in a given metabolic process, or at least enable or augment its transfer to this place by diffusion via neutralization of the electric charge of the molecule. When the last step of the metabolic process results in a change of the charge and therefore also of the pI of the molecule of the final product of the metabolic process, the product of the process is being continuously removed from the place where the enzymes of a particular pathway occur. This can strongly increase the rate of a metabolic process by decreasing the rate of backward reaction.
The evolutionary invention of mechanisms of intracellular isoelectric focusing could have opened a way to the endosymbiotic origin of semiautonomous organelles through enabling the effective functioning of large cells, and therefore also to the origin of the modern eukaryotic cell. Moreover, by inventing a universal and highly evolutionarily plastic process of regulation of intracellular biochemical and physiological processes by changing isoelectric points of proteins, by e.g. phosphorylation, dephosphorylation or non-covalent bonding of inorganic ions, evolution opened the way to fine and complex differentiation of cells and therefore to the origin of multicellular organisms.
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| Translation - Chinese
真核细胞内的等电聚焦
研究表明，真核细胞使用细胞内等电聚焦（isoelectric focusing）的方式以移动和聚集各类蛋白质及其它天然两性电解质，从而克服了细胞质内慢速扩散对细胞内反应所造成的限制。基于各类蛋白质等电点的差异，等电聚焦可用于分离不同的蛋白质。当诸如蛋白质等两性电解质(即同时带有正负电荷基团的分子)处于所带总净电荷为零，因此在电场内不移动的状态时的pH（potential of hydrogen，氢离子浓度指数）即为该两性电解质的等电点（pI, isolectric point）。两性电解质混合物在受到足够强的电场作用下，将自然形成一个pH梯度，在此梯度中特殊种类的两性电解质（包括各类蛋白质)占据了与其等电点相对应的pH位置上的不同区带。实验已证明，真核细胞中确实存在pH梯度。显然，如果细胞内部同时具备电场以及在其中心与外围之间形成的pH梯度，那么，所有细胞质的两性电解质（例如各类蛋白质）都必须依据其不同的等电点而被分类到各同心球层上。通过等电聚焦对细胞质的(need precise terminology)区域进行精准分层，这对于整个细胞的生理功能影响重大。
提高任何化学反应速度最为有效的方法是去除一个或多个该化学反应的产物。当酶和化学反应产物的等电点各异时，采用pH梯度的等电聚焦或任何一种电泳传输的方法，皆可轻而易举地去除该反应的产物。许多代谢过程均始于一个底物分子的化学修饰，或起始于该底物分子与适合载体进行的共价或非共价结合。如此便改变了反应物的等电点，并且可以使反应物电泳传输至酶浓度最高的区域，而这些酶均参与了一个特定的代谢过程；或者通过分子电荷的中和作用和扩散方式，至少能促进或加强反应物转移至该区域。代谢过程的最后步骤导致最终代谢产物电荷发生了变化，因此也改变了其等电点，这时，最终代谢产物正源源不断地从特别代谢途径的酶区域被移除。这样，通过减缓逆向反应则大大提高了代谢过程的反应速度。
细胞内等电聚焦机制这项创新发现促进各种大细胞有效的功能，已经为探索半自主性细胞器内共生起源独辟蹊径，因而也开拓了研究现代真核细胞起源的视野。此外，发明广泛适用且高度革新的塑性加工，其原理为采用例如磷酸化、脱磷酸化或无机离子非共价结合等方法以改变蛋白质的等电点，从而调节细胞内生理生化过程，可见，创新发现叩开了精细复杂的细胞分化的大门，由此为探究多细胞生物体的起源开辟了道路。
| English to Chinese: Diabetes
General field: Medical | Source text - English
Diabetes
Primary diabetes is subdivided on clinical grounds into insulin-dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes (IDDM and NIDDM). The terms IDDM and NIDDM are generally used synonymously with ‘type 1’ and ‘type 2’ diabetes, respectively. The critical difference between IDDM and NIDDM is the degree of insulin deficiency, which is so profound in IDDM that even low insulin concentrations cannot be sustained without insulin replacement. By contrast, NIDDM patients have enough endogenous insulin to prevent ketosis and will survive without insulin therapy.
The diagnosis of diabetes
Blood glucose concentrations are normally remarkably constant: fasting concentrations in whole blood are 3.5 - 6.7 mmol/L and peak values after meals rarely exceed 8 mmol/L. Glycosuria therefore never occurs unless the renal threshold for glucose reabsorption is below the normal value of 10 mmol/L.
Diabetes is diagnosed by a fasting venous whole blood glucose concentration of over 6.7 mmol/L, or a random value exceeding 10 mmol/L. A single very high value (>15 mmol/L) in a symptomatic patient is diagnostic.
Insulin-dependent diabetes
Epidemiology. In Britain, IDDM accounts for about 25% of all diabetic patients and perhaps 50% of those treated with insulin. Within the UK, the highest frequency is found in Scotland. These observations all suggest that environmental factors arc important in causing or precipitating the disease. Also unexplained is the age predilection of IDDM. Any age can be affected, but most cases present before 20 years of age and the incidence peaks at 12 years.
Clinical features. Young patients typically have a short history (a few days or weeks) of the classical symptoms of polyuria, thirst and polydipsia, plus weight loss. Polyuria is due to an osmotic diuresis, which is driven by high glucose and ketone body concentrations in the urine. This polyuria may reach several litres per day. Sleep is disturbed by nocturia, and previously continent children may develop enuresis. Thirst is often intense. Weight is lost rapidly, often despite increased appetite, due to both dehydration and catabolism of muscle and fat. General tiredness and malaise are common.
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes
Epidemiology. Three-quarters of British diabetic patients have NIDDM. This is often described as “mild” diabetes, but these patients are nevertheless susceptible to chronic diabetic complications and most die prematurely, mainly from myocardial infarction. NIDDM is a common disease in well-fed societies, affecting perhaps 10% of Britons and North Americans over 70 years of age. NIDDM is several times commoner in Asian immigrants to the UK than in the indigenous British population.
Clinical features. Two-thirds of NIDDM patients in the UK are obese. At diagnosis, hyperglycaemic symptoms (polyuria, thirst, polydipsia) have usually been present for months or even years. An acute presentation and sudden marked weight loss are unusual but may occur, especially with carcinoma of the pancreas that is associated with NIDDM in older people. Women often have troublesome pruritis vulvae due to candidiasis. NIDDM often has a long subclinical course and many asymptomatic patients are diagnosed incidentally when screened routinely for glycosuria or hyperglycaemia. Others present with chronic diabetic complications such as myocardial infarction, retinopathy or foot ulceration.
| Translation - Chinese
糖尿病
原发性糖尿病根据其临床表现被细分为胰岛素依赖型糖尿病（IDDM，insulin-dependent diabetes）和非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病（NIDDM，non-insulin-dependent diabetes)。胰岛素依赖型糖尿病和非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病这两个术语一般来说分别用于“1型原发性糖尿病”和“2型原发性糖尿病”的同义词。胰岛素依赖型糖尿病和非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病之间的关键差异是胰岛素缺乏的程度,对胰岛素依赖型糖尿病而言,胰岛素缺乏非常严重，以至于在没有胰岛素替代的情况下,甚至连较低的胰岛素浓度都不能保持。相比之下,非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者体内具有的内生胰岛素足以预防酮中毒（ketosis）,而且患者不用胰岛素治疗就能生存。
糖尿病的诊断
正常情况下，血糖浓度保持恒定：全血空腹血糖浓度为3.5-6.7 mmol/L，餐后血糖浓度的峰值几乎不超过8mmol/L。因此，除非葡萄糖重吸收的肾阈值低于正常肾阈值10 mmol/L，糖尿（glycosuria）就绝不会出现。
空腹静脉全血葡萄糖浓度高于6.7 mmol/L，或者随机血糖浓度值超过10 mmol/L，即可诊断为糖尿病。对于有症状患者而言，单次血糖浓度值非常高（超过15 mmol/L），就可被诊断为糖尿病。
胰岛素依赖型糖尿病
流行病学。 在英国，胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者占所有糖尿病患者的25%，大概占到接受胰岛素治疗患者的50%。在英国境内，最高的糖尿病发病频率出现在苏格兰地区。各种观察报告均显示，环境因素对导致或引发糖尿病非常重要。还有一个不能解释的问题是胰岛素依赖型糖尿病好发于某个年龄段。任何年龄段的人都会罹患胰岛素依赖型糖尿病，但是，该病大部分病例都发生在20岁以下，发病高峰是12岁。
临床特征。 对年轻的胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者而言，通常具有短暂的多尿（polyuria）、口渴、多饮（polydipsia）以及体重下降的典型症状史（几天或者几周）。尿液中葡萄糖和酮体的浓度高导致渗透性利尿，从而引起多尿。这种多尿也许每日达到好几升。夜尿（nocturia）频繁扰乱了患者的睡眠，患病之前有节制小便能力的患儿可能会发生遗尿症（enuresis）。口渴症状通常极其严重。由于肌肉和脂肪的脱水与分解代谢（catabolism），尽管患者食欲增加，但是体重却迅速下降。一般性疲劳和全身乏力很常见。
非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病
流行病学。 英国四分之三的糖尿病患者为非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病。虽然人们经常将这种糖尿病描述为“轻微”糖尿病，但是非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者却容易罹患慢性糖尿病并发症，大部分过早夭折的非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者的主要死因是心肌梗死（myocardial infarction）。在营养充足的社会中，非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病是常见的疾病，在70岁以上的英国和北美人口中，大约有10%罹患该病。在英国的亚裔移民中，非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病比其在本土英国人中常见好几倍。
临床特征。 英国三分之二的非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者是肥胖的。在诊断中，非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者的高血糖（hyperglycaemic）症状（多尿，口渴，多饮）一般已经出现好几个月甚至好几年了。虽然这些症状的急性发作和体重突然明显下降并不常见，但也可能发生，尤其会发生在伴发有胰腺癌（carcinoma of the pancreas）患者中，胰腺癌在年老人群中与非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病有相关性。患有念珠菌症（candidiasis）的女性患者时常因外阴瘙痒（pruritis vulvae）而烦恼。非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病常有漫长而无明显临床症状的病程，许多无症状（asymptomatic）患者都是在对糖尿或高血糖进行常规筛查时，偶然被诊断出患有非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病。其他非胰岛素依赖型糖尿病患者则会出现慢性糖尿病并发症，如心肌梗死、视网膜病变（retinopathy）或者足部溃疡（foot ulceration）。
| English to Chinese: TUBERCULOSIS
General field: Medical | Source text - English
TUBERCULOSIS
Clinical features
Some patients with mycobacterium tuberculosis are asymptomatic, their disease being noted on routine chest X-ray. Many patients have fever and weight loss, together with symptoms suggesting pulmonary infection.
Investigation
Tuberculin testing, in which protein derived from tuberculous bacilli is introduced into the skin, is useful in supporting the diagnosis of tuberculosis, and for assessing contacts and children before Bacillus Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccination. When performed correctly, a negative tuberculin test almost excludes active tuberculosis infection except in patients who are profoundly immunosuppressed (e.g. those with advanced HIV disease). A normal chest X-ray is rare in active pulmonary tuberculosis. Characteristic appearances include:
• primary tuberculosis with hilar lymph node enlargement and pulmonary consolidation
• miliary tuberculosis
• re-infection tuberculosis with cavitation and fibrosis
• tuberculous bronchopneumonia.
Fluorescent techniques and/or the Ziehl-Neelsen stain are usually used to screen sputum to confirm that tuberculous bacilli are present. Routine culture of the organism takes 2-8 weeks, and is important for excluding atypical mycobacteria and determining drug sensitivities. If the patient has no sputum, fibre-optic bronchoscopy with bronchial lavage is a useful diagnostic tool.
Differential diagnosis
In any febrile illness it may be relevant to consider tuberculosis, particularly if there is chest X-ray shadowing or lymph gland enlargement. It must be distinguished from simple pneumonia, and in such cases the usual clinical feature which raises suspicion of tuberculosis is the indolent nature of the illness.
Complications
These may be due to dissemination of the disease, extensive lung damage or non-specific metabolic disturbances.
Prevention
The dramatic decline in tuberculosis in developed countries is due to several factors. Of great importance is the control of infection from human sources by effective chemotherapy. Isolation of infectious patients (those with smear-positive sputum) for a few days is helpful, although prolonged periods of barrier nursing, disposable cutlery and so on are not essential. Often, the simplest method is to get the patient to wear a face-mask when people come into the room. Contact tracing is crucial and immediate contacts, especially children, should have a tuberculin test and chest X-ray. Host defences are improved by better housing and social conditions and the use of BCG vaccination. This vaccine, using an attenuated strain of tubercle bacillus, gives a harmless primary infection and therefore a large measure of immunity. It is given to teenage children in developed countries and to infants elsewhere. However, with the decline in the incidence of the disease, routine use of the BCG in Caucasian children who are not otherwise at risk is questionable. To avoid the development of tuberculous disease, prophylactic chemotherapy (preventative therapy) is commonly recommended for individuals with a strongly positive tuberculin skin test but without other evidence of infection who have not received BCG. Many of these individuals are immigrants from parts of the world where tuberculosis is very common. Because of the increased risk of drug side-effects in older individuals, prophylactic chemotherapy is usually limited to children and young adults. A suitable drug regimen is isoniazid plus rifampicin in standard doses, for 3 months.
| Translation - Chinese
结核病
临床特征
有些携带结核分枝杆菌的患者并无症状，这些患者的疾病是从常规X光胸片中发现的。很多患者都出现发热和体重下降，同时伴有提示肺部感染的症状。
调查
在结核菌素试验中，从结核杆菌中提取的蛋白质被注射进入皮肤，该试验对结核病的诊断极其有用，在接种卡介苗(BCG，Bacillus Calmette Guérin) 之前，该试验对评价结核病的接触者和儿童也很有用。如果操作正确，结核菌素试验呈阴性就基本排除了活动性结核感染的可能性，但重度免疫抑制患者除外（例如，晚期艾滋病患者）。在活动性肺结核患者中，正常的X光胸片是罕见。特征表现包括：
• 伴有肺门淋巴结增大和肺部实质性病变的原发性结核病：
• 粟粒性结核病
• 伴有空洞和纤维化的再感染性结核病
• 结核性支气管肺炎。
荧光技术和/或抗酸染色法(Ziehl—Neelsen)经常被使用于痰液筛查，以确定是否有结核病杆菌存在。结核杆菌的常规培养需要2-8周，培养对排除非典型分枝杆菌及确定药物敏感性十分重要。如果患者没有痰液，那么采用光导纤维支气管镜进行支气管灌洗则是非常有用的诊断工具。
鉴别诊断
任何发热性疾病都要考虑可能与结核病有关，尤其是在胸部X片有阴影或者出现淋巴腺增大的症状时。结核病必须与单纯性肺炎进行鉴别，在这些病例中，疑似/提示结核病的常见临床特征是该疾病迁延不愈的特征。
并发症
产生并发症的原因可能是疾病的播散，大面积肺毁损或非特异性代谢紊乱。
预防
在发达国家，结核病的发病急剧下降有多方面原因。其中非常重要的原因是，通过有效的化疗控制来自人的传染。尽管延长隔离护理期、使用一次性餐具以及采取其他措施并不重要，但将有传染性的患者（痰液涂片阳性/涂阳的肺结核患者）隔离数日却大有益处。通常情况下，最简单的方法是当人们进入房间时，让患者带上面罩/口罩。追踪患者的接触者十分关键，直接接触者尤其是儿童必须进行结核菌素试验并作X光胸部检查。更好的居住环境，社会条件及接种卡介苗增强了宿主的防御能力。卡介苗使用的是减毒结核菌株，它提供了无害的原发性感染，因此，卡介苗在很大程度上是一种免疫。发达国家十几岁的孩子以及世界各地的婴儿都要接种卡介苗。然而，随着结核病发病率的下降，在没有患病风险的白人儿童中进行卡介苗的常规接种存在争议。为了避免发展为结核病，预防性化疗通常推荐给下述个人：没有接种卡介苗，结核菌素皮试呈强阳性，无其它感染的证据。在这些人中，有很多都是来自全世界结核病高发地区的移民。由于在老年人群中，药物副作用风险增加，因此预防性化疗通常仅限于儿童和年轻成年人使用。适当的药物治疗方案为按照异烟肼和利福平的标准剂量服用三个月。
| English to Chinese: Stroke
General field: Medical | Source text - English
Stroke
What is Stroke?
A stroke is an acute or subacute event in which a neurological deficit develops over minutes or hours, sometimes persisting for at least 24 hours. A stroke occurs by a vascular disturbance in the brain, when the blood supply to part of the brain is suddenly interrupted or when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, spilling blood into the spaces surrounding brain cells. Brain cells die when they no longer receive oxygen and nutrients from the blood or there is sudden bleeding into or around the brain.
The symptoms of a stroke include sudden numbness or weakness, especially on one side of the body; sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech; sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes; sudden trouble with walking; dizziness, or loss of balance or coordination; or sudden severe headache with no known cause. Most strokes are due to arterial occlusion and consequent ischaemic infarction of the brain, with primary intracerebral haemorrhage being comparatively much less common.
Is there any treatment?
Generally there are three treatment stages for stroke: prevention, therapy immediately after the stroke, and post-stroke rehabilitation.
Therapies to prevent a first or recurrent stroke are based on treating an individual's underlying risk factors for stroke, such as hypertension or diabetes. Acute stroke therapies try to stop a stroke while it is happening by quickly dissolving the blood clot causing an ischemic stroke or by stopping the bleeding of a hemorrhagic stroke. Post-stroke rehabilitation helps individuals overcome disabilities that result from stroke damage. Medication or drug therapy is the most common treatment for stroke. The most popular classes of drugs used to prevent or treat stroke are antithrombotics (antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants) and thrombolytics.
Stroke recovery is variable in its speed and extent, but it can eventually be complete. Stroke-type vascular events lasting less than 24 hours are defined transient ischemic attacks (TIAs). Some apparent TIAs may be associated with infarction on a computerised tomography (CT) scan, whereas more prolonged symptoms are not always accompanied by a visible structural lesion in the brain. In practice, most TIAs are very brief, lasting only minutes or 1 to 2 hours at most.
What is the prognosis?
Although stroke is a disease of the brain, it can affect the entire body. A common disability that results from stroke is complete paralysis on one side of the body, called hemiplegia. A related disability is one-sided weakness. Stroke may cause problems with thinking, awareness, attention, learning, judgment, and memory. Stroke survivors often have problems understanding or forming speech. A stroke can lead to emotional problems. Stroke patients may have difficulty controlling their emotions or may express inappropriate emotions. Many stroke patients experience depression. Stroke survivors may also have numbness or strange sensations. The pain is often worse in the hands and feet, and is made worse by movement and temperature changes, especially cold temperatures. Recurrent stroke is frequent; about 25 percent of people who recover from their first stroke will have another stroke within 5 years.
| Translation - Chinese
脑卒中
什么是脑卒中？
脑卒中是一次急性或亚急性事件，在此事件中发生的神经功能缺持续几分钟或几小时的，有时至少24小时。脑卒中是由大脑血管功能障碍引起的，一种情况是大脑某部位的供血突然中断，另一种情况是，大脑血管破裂溢出的血液进入脑细胞周围的间隙。当脑细胞不再能接收血液输送的氧气和养分时，或当血液突然外溢至大脑或大脑周围区域时，脑细胞就死亡了。
脑卒中的临床症状包括：突然出现麻痹或无力，特别是在身体的一侧；突然思维混乱，口齿不清或语言理解障碍；突然单侧或双侧视物模糊；突然行走困难，眩晕，丧失平衡能力或协调能力；或出现突然无明原因的剧烈头痛。大部分脑卒中是由动脉闭塞引起的，继而发生大脑缺血梗死，原发性脑出血相对少见。
脑卒中有哪些治疗方法？
脑卒中的治疗通常分为三个阶段：预防治疗阶段，脑卒中后急性期治疗阶段以及脑卒中后康复治疗阶段。
预防首次脑卒中发作或脑卒中复发的基础是，对个体潜在的引发脑卒中的危险因素进行治疗，比如高血压和糖尿病。急性脑卒中治疗方法试图在急性脑卒中突发时终止脑卒中的发展，治疗手段包括快速溶解导致出血性脑卒中的血凝块，或止住出血性脑卒中的出血。脑卒中后康复治疗是帮助患者战胜由脑卒中损伤引起的残疾。药疗法或药物治疗是治疗脑卒中最常见的方法。抗血栓药（抗血小板制剂和抗凝制剂）以及溶血栓药是目前用于预防和治疗脑卒中最普遍的药物种类。
尽管脑卒中恢复在速度和程度上有所不同，但患者最终会痊愈。持续时间不超过24小时的脑卒中型血管事件被定义为短暂性脑缺血发作（transient ischemic attacks ，TIAs)。虽然一些明显的短暂性脑缺血发作在CT（计算机体层摄影术，computerised tomography）扫描中有脑梗死表现，但是更多长期的临床症状并非总是伴有可见的颅脑结构损伤。在临床上，大部分短暂性脑缺血发作非常短暂，临床症状仅仅持续几分钟或最多一至两个小时。
脑卒中的预后怎样？
虽然脑卒中是一种脑部疾病，但它会影响到全身。由脑卒中引发的常见残疾是半边肢体的完全瘫痪，即偏瘫。另一个与脑卒中相关的残疾是单侧肢体无力。脑卒中会导致患者产生下述方面的诸多障碍：即思维能力、认识力、注意力、学习能力、判断力和记忆力障碍。脑卒中存活患者常常还有理解力或组织语言能力的障碍。脑卒中会引起情感障碍。脑卒中患者可能会很难控制感情，或表达不合适的情感。许多脑卒中患者伴有抑郁症。脑卒中存活患者可能还有麻木的感觉或各种奇怪的感觉。手部和足部的痛感常常更为剧烈，在行动和温度变化时痛感加重，特别是在严寒的情况下。脑卒中会频繁复发，大约有25%从首次脑卒中恢复的患者在5年内将罹患第二次脑卒中。
| English to Chinese: INTERLEUKIN-2 ASSAY METHODS
General field: Tech/Engineering | Source text - English
INTERLEUKIN-2 ASSAY METHODS
Bioassays, using murine or human T-cell lines, have been widely used to measure
interleukin-2 (IL-2) levels. In these procedures, IL-2 is quantitated by its effect on viability and proliferation of activated T-cells. Proliferation is generally measured by [3H]-thymidine incorporation during a short pulse period. IL-2 concentration is determined by interpolation on a standard curve. Because of the wide variety of target cells, culture techniques, and methods for recording the cellular response, results may vary from laboratory to laboratory. Reference materials are necessary for assay standardization.
Although bioassay offers excellent sensitivity, this method requires the maintenance of target cells, usually requires radioactivity and counting apparatus, and is subject to various forms of interference. For example, proliferation and viability are affected by reagents such as buffer salts and denaturing agents used in IL-2 purification. Other potential interfering agents are related cytokines and polypeptides.
Unlabeled IL-2 has also been quantitated by its ability to compete for binding of radiolabelled IL-2 to the cellular receptor for this factor. This requires membrane preparations from receptor-positive cells, radioactivity, and counting time.
The availability of recombinant IL-2 and specific antibodies has led to development of antibody-based assays. Immunoassay can be convenient, may be automated, and is generally insensitive to materials which might affect the viability and response of target cells in the bioassay. Sensitivity can approach that of bioassays.
With recombinant IL-2 and specific antibodies, a convenient and sensitive assay kit for IL-2 has been developed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure recombinant or natural (glycosylated) IL-2.
PRINCIPLE OF THE ASSAY
This IL-2 ELISA is based on immunological detection of IL-2 with colorimetric read-out. The kit uses highly specific rabbit polyclonal antisera as capture reagent, recombinant human IL-2 as standard, biotinylated detector antibody, streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (SA-HRP), and orthophenylenediamine as chromogen.
The basic principle of sandwich ELISA is use of an immobilized reagent (anti-IL-2 fixed onto microtitre plate wells) to capture the analyte IL-2 which is then detected by reacting with a second reagent (biotinylated anti-IL-2). The amount of biotinylated antibody bound is measured by complexing with a SA-HRP, which catalyzes the conversion of orthophenylenediamine (OPD) to a coloured product. The coloured reaction product is measured by a colorimetric microplate reader. The amount of colour generated is directly proportional to the quantity of IL-2 captured.
CONDENSED PROTOCOL/PROCEDURE SUMMARY
1. Dilute Plate Wash from concentrate.
2. Wash plate wells.
3. Dilute standards.
4. Add standards and samples to microplate wells.
5. Incubate overnight at 2°-8°C or 2 hours at 37°C.
6. Dilute Antibody/Conjugate Diluent from 10x Concentrate.
7. Dilute Detector Antibody.
8. Dilute Plate Wash from concentrate (if needed).
9. Wash microplate wells.
10. Add diluted Detector Antibody to wells.
11. Incubate 1.5 hours at 37°C.
12. Dilute SA-HRP.
13. Add diluted SA-HRP to wells.
14. Incubate 1 hour at 37°C.
15. Add OPD solution to wells.
16. Incubate 30 minutes at room temperature (protected from light).
17. Stop colour reaction with Stop Solution.
18. Read optical density at 490nm.
19. Calculate results.
| Translation - Chinese
INTERLEUKIN-2 ASSAY METHODS
Bioassays, using murine or human T-cell lines, have been widely used to measure
interleukin-2 (IL-2) levels. In these procedures, IL-2 is quantitated by its effect on viability and proliferation of activated T-cells. Proliferation is generally measured by [3H]-thymidine incorporation during a short pulse period. IL-2 concentration is determined by interpolation on a standard curve. Because of the wide variety of target cells, culture techniques, and methods for recording the cellular response, results may vary from laboratory to laboratory. Reference materials are necessary for assay standardization.
Although bioassay offers excellent sensitivity, this method requires the maintenance of target cells, usually requires radioactivity and counting apparatus, and is subject to various forms of interference. For example, proliferation and viability are affected by reagents such as buffer salts and denaturing agents used in IL-2 purification. Other potential interfering agents are related cytokines and polypeptides.
Unlabeled IL-2 has also been quantitated by its ability to compete for binding of radiolabelled IL-2 to the cellular receptor for this factor. This requires membrane preparations from receptor-positive cells, radioactivity, and counting time.
The availability of recombinant IL-2 and specific antibodies has led to development of antibody-based assays. Immunoassay can be convenient, may be automated, and is generally insensitive to materials which might affect the viability and response of target cells in the bioassay. Sensitivity can approach that of bioassays.
With recombinant IL-2 and specific antibodies, a convenient and sensitive assay kit for IL-2 has been developed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure recombinant or natural (glycosylated) IL-2.
PRINCIPLE OF THE ASSAY
This IL-2 ELISA is based on immunological detection of IL-2 with colorimetric read-out. The kit uses highly specific rabbit polyclonal antisera as capture reagent, recombinant human IL-2 as standard, biotinylated detector antibody, streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (SA-HRP), and orthophenylenediamine as chromogen.
The basic principle of sandwich ELISA is use of an immobilized reagent (anti-IL-2 fixed onto microtitre plate wells) to capture the analyte IL-2 which is then detected by reacting with a second reagent (biotinylated anti-IL-2). The amount of biotinylated antibody bound is measured by complexing with a SA-HRP, which catalyzes the conversion of orthophenylenediamine (OPD) to a coloured product. The coloured reaction product is measured by a colorimetric microplate reader. The amount of colour generated is directly proportional to the quantity of IL-2 captured.
CONDENSED PROTOCOL/PROCEDURE SUMMARY
1. Dilute Plate Wash from concentrate.
2. Wash plate wells.
3. Dilute standards.
4. Add standards and samples to microplate wells.
5. Incubate overnight at 2°-8°C or 2 hours at 37°C.
6. Dilute Antibody/Conjugate Diluent from 10x Concentrate.
7. Dilute Detector Antibody.
8. Dilute Plate Wash from concentrate (if needed).
9. Wash microplate wells.
10. Add diluted Detector Antibody to wells.
11. Incubate 1.5 hours at 37°C.
12. Dilute SA-HRP.
13. Add diluted SA-HRP to wells.
14. Incubate 1 hour at 37°C.
15. Add OPD solution to wells.
16. Incubate 30 minutes at room temperature (protected from light).
17. Stop colour reaction with Stop Solution.
18. Read optical density at 490nm.
19. Calculate results.
|
More Less | | Master's degree - Imperial College London | | Registered at ProZ.com: May 2011. Became a member: Oct 2011. | | N/A | English to Chinese (University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne)
English to Chinese (Imperial College London (Univ. of London))
Chinese to English (University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne)
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