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More Less | | PRO-level points: 12, Questions answered: 4 | Sample translations submitted: 3 | Chinese to English: 專訪政治大學黃明聖教授 > Interview with Professor Huang Mingsheng of Chengchi University | Source text - Chinese
政治大學黃明聖1985年通過教育部公費考試留學英國，1990年取得博士學位回台後，一直在政大財政系任職，2003~2007年膺選為二任的財政系主任，研究領域為運輸財政、公債理論。
本期刊很榮幸於97年7月31日專訪黃明聖教授於百忙中能撥冗接受專訪，就其參與政府採購長期公共服務經驗與觀察，提出寶貴的觀點。
| Translation - English
After passing the public examination of the Ministry of Education in 1985, Huang Mingsheng studied abroad in Great Britain. In 1990, after obtaining his doctorate, he returned to Taiwan and has been teaching at the financial department of Chengchi University ever since. From 2003~2007 he was elected for the second time as the head of the financial department of Chengchi University, his main areas of research are Transport Finance and Bond Theory.
We are honored that Professor Huang Mingsheng in all his engagement could find the time to accept our interview on July 31 of 97, sharing his experiences and observations regarding the Government Procurement of Long-Term Public Service and providing us with his indispensable opinion.
| | Chinese to English: 國際BOT案例分析> International BOT Project Analysis | Source text - Chinese
國際BOT案例分析
BOT計畫案有其共通之特質，但因其靈活度高，每一項BOT案亦均有其獨特之處。分析國際案例中，成功與失敗之BOT案，也皆出偶然。
本篇因此整理分析幾項國際重要BOT案例，尤其針對風險責任之歸屬、權利義務之對稱、財務結構之分配、籌資工具之運用等關鍵因素，予以探討分析。
壹、英法海底隧道
英法海底隧道橫跨英吉利海峽，連接英法兩國，全長50公里，其中38公里在海底，工程主體包括兩座火車專用隧道與一座汽車隧道。英法海底隧道於1987年開始興勒，1993年建造完成，特許經營權長達55年，總建造成本約120億美元，為本世紀規模最大之民間業者投資興建公共建設案例。
英法海底隧道之工程完全由民間廠商－英法海底隧道公司（Eurotunnel）包辦，因為政府並不提供財務擔保，因此工程的建造風險完全由民間承擔。為此，公司特別準備了美金18億元以應付成本超支；同時在控制工程經費方面，更有部份的陸上工程係採固定價格發包以控制工程經費，若承包廠商於固定價格內完工，可獲額外之利潤；反之，則需負賠償之責。例如部份工程係以預估成本，承包商可賺取成本節省部份的50%；但若實際成本超過預估成本，承包商則須支付超過部份的30%。
財務規劃方面，英法海底隧道公司曾對英法兩國政府承諾籌足總建造成本之20%的股本，且其專案貸款無須兩國政府之擔保，貸款係以隧道營運收入償還。上述條件下，英法海底隧道公司先向209家跨國銀行聯貸了85億美金，其後則又增加貸款金額及銀行家數，最後共有220家銀行參與聯貸，其財務結構中之負債權益比率則由原先預定之4比1增加至接近5比1。權益資金共18億美元，含最先之自籌權益資金0.8億美元，第一次權益籌資之3.7億美元（先自於機構投資人），第二次權益籌資之8億美元（股票上市）；以及第三、第四次各再從股票市場籌資2.75 億美元。
英法海底隧道於1994年開始營運時，其成本超支為原本估計之兩倍，另外，雖然英法政府承諾33年之內不再興建類似的隧道，但隧道仍受到平價渡輪的競爭；1995年1月至6月的年中結算，稅前虧損4.6億英磅，營業額只達利息支出的三分之一。由英法海底隧道營運看來，英法海底隧道公司的案例之成效評估仍有待觀察，但英法兩國政府於此BOT案中責任劃分清楚。一方面，英法政府為使計畫順利進行，特別通過一些協助之法案（如簽定長期使用契約，支持交通流量預估的達成），另外，英法海底隧道公司享有營運自主權，例如隧道的通行費牽可自由調整等。但在融資方面，則政府完全沒有涉入，由特許公司及金融機構分別承擔風險，符合BOT減輕政府財政負擔及風險分擔的精神，就此意義而言，為一成功BOT案例。
貳、澳洲雪梨過港隧道
澳洲雪梨過港隧道全長2行公里，由澳洲規模最大的民營營造公司和日商熊谷組合資組成之雪梨過港隧道公司SHTC（Sydney Harbour Tunnel Company）在1986年簽約建造經營，1992年建造完成，特許經營權30年。
雪梨過港隧道之建造總成本為5億5千萬美元，其中權益資金僅2900萬美元，權益負債比率因此約為1：18。負債資金中含60%的公債發行，其餘則為澳洲政府提供之貸款。此案財務安排的特色在於其借貸資金之來源排除了一般銀行聯貸模式，而以政府優惠貸款及公債之發行替代聯貸。另外，此公債為30年期的公債，較澳洲資本市場上一般10年或20年期之公債為長，且其發行只限於澳洲境內。公債每季支付利息並償還本金，但因其報酬率依通貨膨脹率調整，建造期所付擔之利息成本較低，使其營運期之現金流入與資金1成本支出的時間上配合度較高，因此有助於現金資金之調配。另外，此種依通貨膨脹率調整報酬率的長期公債，亦降低投資人的持有風險，因此增加澳洲國人對此公債購買之興趣。
其它政府之配合措施包括對最低營運收入之保障，但並無匯率或利率方面之保證。另外，雪梨過港隧道公司亦無費率或運量方面之營運自主權，例如其隧道費由澳洲政府訂定為1元澳幣，規定日後因應物價上漲之調整為每次上漲0.5元，另外，雪梨過港隧道公司以統包，固定價枚建造合約及提供履約保證金方式，在成本追加及工程進度落後下，SHTC所提供的0.4億美元之屢約保證金將無法回收。
這個BOT案中，澳洲政府給予特許公司SHTC優惠貸款，特別創例發行30年期公債予以資金的支援，更對其營運期之收入給予最低營收保證，可謂支持程度極高；但相對地在風險方面，則將利率、匯率、成本超支及完工幾險等各項風險，均清楚歸屬於特許公司。計畫完工後至今的營運狀況顯示其不僅為一成功財務投資計畫，亦為一成功之BOT個案，而BOT特許公司SHTC之權利與風險的相稱，為其計畫成功之關鍵。
參、香港東區過港隧道
香港東區過港隧道由新香港隧道有限公司NHKTC負責建造，其特許權限為汔車隧道30年、鐵路隧道22批，自1985年得標後興建，1989年9月完工，總建造工程經費為5.6億美元。香港東區過港隧道包含8.6公里長的汔車隧道以及5公里長的鐵路隧道，其營運部份分別由新香港隧道有限公司（NHKTC）負責道路的營運，以及由東區過港公司（EHCC）負責鐵路的營運。香港東區過港隧道之BOT案以股權投資、銀行聯貸、及租賃為資金來源，但此二家公司採用分開且獨立之融資方式。NHKTC之股權資金為0.73億美元，銀行聯貸及租賃資金為2.87億美元，其負債權益比為3.9；EHCC之股權資金為0.62億美元，銀行聯貸及租賃資金為1.43億美元，其負債權益比則為2.3。
新香港隧道有限公司由7個不同公司合組而成，包括日本熊谷組（佔50.75%）、大陸中國國際信託投資公司（24.5%）、香港保華營造公司（6.65%）、日本長期信用銀行（5.50%）、香港政府（5.0%）、英國利之營造公司（4.75%）、及日本丸紅（2.85%）。以上這些公司分別提供各項配合措施，例如日本熊谷組以固定價統包合約方式分擔完工風險及成本增加風險；香港政府採減色稅捐方式支持等，為其成功要件。此案顯示政府的支持與配合，在成功的BOT案中之重要，且顯示配合的方式有許多，並非一定要透過融資保證的方式來協助。
另外，香港政府參與的5%之股權投資，其宣示意義亦為此BOT案成功之要件。這是因為此案之融資安排為跨越1997年香港主權移轉之時點，投資人及金融機構對此案之信心格外受到考驗，香港政府的股權參與之意義，因此特別重大。另外，香港政府雖不作財務擔保，但除參與股權投資外，另有多項配合措施，例如負責土地取得，建造交流道及建造隧道聯外道路之引道，對於隧道使用者免稅，以及為此BOT案特別立法“東區過港隧道條例＂作為專門管理的依據。此條例包括十章，函蓋建設及經營過港隧道之特許，並規範香港過港隧道之建設、營運、維護以及附隨或相關事項。香港東區過港隧道BOT案之法令依據因此甚為完備。
肆、泰國曼谷弟二高速公路
泰國曼谷第二高速公路全長42公里，總建造成本約為10億美元，其中土地徵收佔總建設金額之45%，全案由日商熊谷組在泰國成立的「曼谷高速公路股份有限公司」（BECL）承造，於1990年3月動工興建，於1995年完工營運。其建造方式為先以統包方式與承包商簽約，之後再由承包商以固定價格之基礎轉包給其他承銷商。由於工程沒有政府之財務擔保，故BECL需自行承擔興建與投資風險。此案與他案不同之處，在於BECL需自行負擔6億7千多萬美金的土地政得成本。
在10億美元的總建造經費中，股權資金為2億美元，負債資金為8億美元，其權益負債之比率為1比4，泰國政府雖沒有提出任何補助，但泰國政府亦同意人股BECL（佔股權資金之49%），並與BECL共同分享曼谷兩條高速公路的收入。
在其它政府提供之配合措施方面，泰國政府並未對BECL提出支助性貸款或最低營運收入保證，亦未提出匯兌或利率之保證，另外，在公路營運費率方面，泰國政府參考過去5年之通貨膨脹率，訂定每輛車的通行費率為美金1.2元，且15年內費率調整不得超過美金0.8元，BECL之營運自主性也因此受到影響。高速公路之所有權將於營運30年後移轉予泰國高速公路與快速運輸管理局（Expressway | Translation - English
International BOT Project Analysis
The BOT projects all have their common features, but since their flexibility is high, every BOT project also has its own unique points. In analyzing international BOT projects we can infer that their success or failure depends highly on chance.
This article compiles the analyses of several important international BOT projects, especially discussing possession of Risk Responsibility, the symmetry of rights and obligations, distribution of financial structure, and the key elements of applying financial tools etc., providing a thorough investigatory analysis.
1. The Channel Tunnel between England and France
This tunnel beneath the English Channel floor connects the 38 kilometer seabed between England and France. Being 50 kilometers in full span, the main body of the construction project included two special-purpose train tunnels and one car tunnel. The English Channel Tunnel construction commenced in 1987 and was completed in 1993. Its management franchise was valid for 55 years in total, the total construction costs were approximately 12,000,000,000 US dollars, an example of the greatest civil entrepreneur investment in a Public Construction project in this century.
The Channel Tunnel engineering project was organized completely by a civil corporation; Eurotunnel. And because the government did not provide any financial guarantee, the construction risks of the project were completely undertaken by the company. Therefore, the company especially prepared 1,800,000,000 dollars to deal with possible cost overrun. Simultaneously, to control the aspect of the engineering expenses, the part-time land engineering divisions were contracted on a fixed-price contract, if the contractor finishes the work within the timeframe of the fixed-price contract, he may reap the extra profit; otherwise, he will have to accept the money loss.
For example; the part-time engineering division first estimates the cost of the project, then, in case of project cost-reductions, the contractor is allowed to reap up to 50%. But if the actual costs exceed the originally estimated cost, the contractor must pay 30% of the progression costs. Concerning the aspect of financial planning, Eurotunnel promised to both the English and the French government to self-finance 20% of the construction costs’ capital stock, also, the project loan did not require the guarantee of both countries governments; the loan will be repaid by the toll fees for tunnel utilization.
Under the above conditions, Eurotunnel at first borrowed 8,500,000,000 dollars from 209 multinational Bankers Associations, after that it increased the loan amount and the number of banks. In the end altogether 220 banks joined in the participating loan. The debt/equity ratio in this financial structure grew from the original 4 to 1 to approaching 5 to 1. The equity funds were altogether 1,800,000,000 US dollars, including the initial self-provided equity fund of 80,000,000 US dollars. The first time 370,000,000 US dollars of equity funds were raised (first from organization investors). The second time 800,000,000 US dollars of equity funds were raised (when stocks hit the market); the third time as well as the fourth time the finances once again came from the stock market; a total of 2.75 hundred million US dollars.
When the Channel Tunnel started operating in 1994, the cost-overrun counted for the double of the originally estimated costs, moreover, although the English and the French government promised not to construct any similar tunnel within the next 33 years, the tunnel still incurred competition from the fair priced Ferry liners. Viewing the account balance from January to June 1995, the pre-tax deficit was 460,000,000 English pounds; making the company able to only pay 1/3 of the interest.
Looking at the Channel Tunnel operation, Eurotunnel’s project result evaluation was still awaiting inspection, but the responsibilities of both the English as the French government for this BOT project were clearly divided. On the other hand, the English and French governments, especially through some assisting ordinances attempted to smoothen up the project’s progression, for example by offering long-term contract evaluation and the agreement to support traffic flow estimations. Furthermore, Eurotunnel enjoyed operation autonomy of the Channel Tunnel, therefore the tunnel toll fees could be increased or lowered at will. But when it comes to the financial aspect, the government was not completely done yet; chartered corporations and financial organs shared the risk undertaking, thereby conforming to the spirit of BOT to lighten the financial burden of the government and sharing its risks, therefore this BOT project was a success.
2. Australian Sydney Harbor Tunnel
The Australian Sydney Harbor Tunnel has a span of 2 kilometers, constructed by SHTC （Sydney Harbor Tunnel Company）a joint venture company formed by Australia’s largest scale privately operated construction enterprise and the Kumagai Gumi Company under a construction management contract signed in 1986. The construction was completed in 1992, with a management franchise valid for 30 years. The total construction costs of the Sydney Harbor Tunnel were 550,000,000 US dollars, in which the equity fund only accounted for 29,000,000 US dollars; therefore the equity/debt ratio was approximately 1:18. In the liability fund 60% of issued bonds were included; the rest was of the loan provided by the Australian Government. The special characteristics of this project’s financial arrangements are that the company didn’t turn to general Bankers Associations for loans, but instead financed the project through substituting the participating loans by issued bonds and concessional loans from the government. Moreover, these bonds were valid for a 30 year period, relatively long compared to Australia’s capital market’s usual bond period of 10 years or 20 years, also its issuance is restricted only to Australia.
The bond’s require a seasonal payment of interest and capital reimbursement, but because the Rate of return changes according to the inflation rate, the cost of interest was lower during the construction period, causing the degree of adaptability to the cash inflow from the in-service period and the payment of the capital costs to increase, therefore it helped with the allocation of cash capital. Additionally, these kind of long-term bonds which depend on the Rate of return of the inflation rate adjustment also reduce the risk ownership of the investors, thereby increasing the interest of the Australian people regarding the purchase of these bonds.
Other government coordination measures include a lowest operating income guarantee, but don’t include exchange rate or the interest rate guarantees. Moreover, the Sydney Harbor Tunnel Company had no operation autonomy of the transportation volume or toll fee rate. So for example, if the tunnel toll-fee would be 1 Australian dollar, then every time inflation causes a price rise in the future it will be adjusted 0.50 cents up. Still, the Sydney Harbor Tunnel Company through a turnkey fixed-price construction contract provided a performance bond. Under extended costs and project backfall, it wouldn’t be possible to recover the approximate 40.000.000 US dollars of performance guarantees which SHTC provided..
In this BOT project, the Australian Government gave the chartered company SHTC a concessional loan, and especially issued 30 year period bonds to give capital support, additionally providing a lowest revenue guarantee for the operating period it may be said that the degree of support was extremely high; But actually, when it comes to the aspect of risk; interest rate, exchange rate, cost overspending and many other dangers threatening project completion, full risk ownership belonged to the chartered company.
From after the project completion till now, the operating condition doesn’t only demonstrate that it was a successful finance investment plan, it is one of the few really successful BOT projects to the day, besides, the relation between the rights and risks of the BOT chartered company SHTC, was the key to the success of this project.
3. Hong Kong Eastern Harbor Tunnel
The Eastern Harbor Tunnel has been constructed by the New Hong Kong Tunnel Company (NHKTC). The franchise for the motor-vehicle tunnel is valid for a 30 year period. The railroad tunnel 22 started construction in 1985, after bid acceptance, it was completed in September 1989; the total project construction costs were 560,000,000 US dollars. The East Harbor Tunnel includes an 8.6 kilometer long motor vehicle tunnel as well as a 5 kilometer long railroad tunnel. Its operating parts were separated by the New Hong Kong Tunnel Company (NHKTC), responsible for operation of the motor-vehicle road, and by the Eastern Harbor Company (EHCC) responsible for operation of the railroad. The BOT project of the Eastern Harbor Tunnel founded its capital through equity investments, Bankers Association loans, and leasing, but these two companies applied a separate and independent model of financing.
The equity funds of NHKTC accounted for 730.000.000 US dollars, the Bankers Association loans and the leasing funds accounted for 287,000,000 US dollars, the debt/equity ratio was 3.9; the equity funds of the EHCC accounted for 620.000.000 US dollars, the Bankers Association loans and equity funds accounted for 143,000,000 US dollars, the debt/equity ratio was 2.3.
New Hong Kong Tunnel Company formed a joint venture with 7 different companies, including the Japanese Kumagai Gumi (accounting for 50.75%), mainland China International Trust Investment Company (24.5%), the Hong Kong Construction Association Company (6.65%), Japanese Long-term Credit Bank (5.50%), Hong Kong Government (5.0%), the English Leeds Construction Company (4.75%), and the Japanese Marubeni (2.85%). The above companies each provide separate coordination measures. For example; Japan Kumagai Gumi used the fixed-price contract model to share project completion risks and the risk of cost-increase; the Hong Kong Government used tax subtraction, etc., as an important factor for their success. This project demonstrates the importance of the coordination and support from government in bringing a BOT project to a success. It also demonstrated that there are many ways of coordination. By no means is a financial guarantee the only way to assist. In addition, the 5% equity investment that the Hong Kong Government participated in, declares the significance and the important factors for bringing this BOT project to a good end. This is because the financial arrangements of this project surmounted the sovereignty shift in Hong Kong in 1997. Especially the confidence of the investors and the financial setups towards this project were put to the test, the Hong Kong Government's equity participation was therefore of great significance. Besides, although the Hong Kong Government did not make a financial guarantee, next to participating in equity investments it was responsible for many coordination measures as well. For example; responsibility for the acquisition of land, construction of interchanges and the design of interchange approach roads connecting the tunnel with the outer roads. Leaving the tunnel free of duty as well as, especially for this BOT project, legislating the “Eastern Harbor Crossing Ordinance”, serving as the base for professional management “. This ordinance consists of ten chapters, covering the franchise of the construction and management and specifying construction, operation, maintenance and other corresponding items concerning the Hong Kong Harbor Crossing Tunnel construction project. Thanks to the issuance of this law the BOT project of the Hong Kong Eastern Harbor Tunnel was perfectly completed.
4. Thai Bangkok Second-Stage Expressway
The span of the Thai Bangkok Second-Stage Expressway is 42 kilometers, total construction costs were approximately 1,000,000,000 US dollars, in which land levy accounts for 45% of the total construction costs. The complete project was carried out by the “Bangkok Expressway Public Co. Ltd.” (BECL), established in Thailand by the Japanese firm Kumagai Gumi. The construction commenced in March, 1990 and was completed in 1995. This construction model was first progressed through the turnkey model and entrepreneur contracts, later on, entrepreneurs offered fixed-price subcontracts to other contractors. Because the project didn’t have any financial guarantee from the government, BECL had to undertake all constructing and investment risks. The dissimilarity of this project with other projects lies in the fact that BECL had to willingly bear more than 670,000,000 dollars of land administration costs.
On the other aspects of coordination procedures provided by the Thai Government, it by no means offered any supporting loans or any lowest operating income guarantee to BECL, nor did it offer a remittance or interest rate guarantee. Additionally, when it comes to the aspect of the expressway toll fee, referring to the inflation rate of the past 5 years, the Thai Government set the general toll for each vehicle on 1.2 dollars, even though in the last 15 years the toll adjustment hasn’t didn’t exceed 0.8 dollars. Because of this the operating autonomy of BECL was affected as well. The property rights of the expressway will shift to the Expressway | Japanese to English: 酸化還元反応の第一原理計算 >First-principles calculations of redox reactions
General field: Science | Source text - Japanese
MANA／ナノ材料科学環境拠点 環境拠点計算グループ 館山 佳尚
光触媒や燃料電池・太陽電池など、環境・エネルギー問題解決の切り札と目されている技術の中心プロセスは“酸化還元反応”すなわち化学結合変化を伴う電子移動反応（例えば水素生成2H 2e- H2, 酸素還元／水分解 O2 4H 4e- 2H2Oなど）によるエネルギー授受から成っています。この酸化還元反応の定量的シミュレーションを行うためには、電子移動過程とそれに伴う構造変化の高精度な記述が必要です。私たちはこの酸化還元反応に関する自由エネルギー変化、反応径路を定量的に求めるための密度汎関数理論をベースにした第一原理分子動力学手法の開発・実証を行ってきました。その結果、電子移動に関する代表的理論であるMarcus理論と調和した、非常にユニバーサルな計算手法の構築に成功しました。最近は触媒や電池の主要な反応場である固体－液体界面における酸化還元反応に向けた拡張に取り組んでいます。そして界面構造を変化させることにより、水や有機物分解の酸化還元反応効率がどのように変化するかを半定量的に見積もることができつつあるところです。将来的には、これらの計算手法をもとに界面酸化還元反応の理論的設計が可能になることが期待されます。
| Translation - English
Mana - Innovative Center of Nanomaterials Science for Environment and Energy,
Computational materials science group Tateyama Yoshitaka
The central process involved in photocatalysis, fuel cells and solar batteries; technologies perceived as the last resort in solving energy and environment issues, are “Redox Reactions", i.e., energy exchanges resulting from electron transfer involved in chemical change (e.g., hydrogen production 2H 2e- H2, oxygen-reduction / water-splitting O2 4H 4e- 2H2O, etc.). An accurate description of the structural changes accompanying the electron transfer process is necessary to perform a quantitative simulation of redox reactions.
In order to quantatively assess the reaction path of free energy exchange correlated to these redox reactions, we performed development and verification of the first-principles molecular dynamics method based on the Density Functional Theory.
As a result, we have successfully constructed an extremely universal calculation method in accordance with the Marcus theory, a representative theory on electron transfer. Recently, we are working on expanding the Solid/Liquid Interface, which is the main reaction field of batteries and catalysis, for the redox reactions. And at present, the changes of the efficiency of redox reactions in water and organic matter decompositions, resulting when altering the surface structure, continues to be semi-quantitatively estimated.
It is anticipated that in the future, based on these calculation methods, the theoretical design of surface redox reactions will be feasible.
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I currently study at the Japanese department of Tamkang university in Taiwan.
Except for my main translating languages; Japanese and Chinese, I have researched over 22 languages in the course of my life and have mastered seven;
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