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Serbian to English: Aerosoli u atmosferi Detailed field: Environment & Ecology
Source text - Serbian 1. UVOD
Glavni izvori zagađenja atmosphere su sagorevanje fosilnih goriva, antropogene aktivnosti i drugo. Nus pojava svih oblika sagorevanja je emisija ugljen-dioksida. Produkti nepotpunog sagorevanja CO i NOx mogu da reaguju sa drugim komponentama atmosfere. Efekat ovih reakcija je nastajanje ozona i drugih gasova staklene bašte. Pocesi sagorevanja goriva ispušaju i aerosole koji imaju direktan negativan uticaj na ljudsko zdravlje i ekosisteme (Ramanathan i Feng, 2009). Sastav atmosfere određen je prirodnim i antropogenim emisijama kao prilivom, odlivom i strujanjem energije u atmosferi. Izvor ove energije je sunčeva svetlost, ultravioletno i infracrveno zračenje (Isaksen i sar., 2009).
Aerosoli se najjednostavnije mogu definisati kao dvofazni sistem sačinjen od čvrstih i tečnih čestica suspendovanih u gasu (Satheesh i sar., 2010; Gill i sar., 2010; Hinds, 1999; Reist, 1993). Aerosoli potiču iz različitih antropogenih i prirodnih izvora (Satheesh i Moorthy, 2005; Monks i sar., 2009; Hinds, 1999; Reist, 1993), emituju se iz industrije, termoelektrana, saobraćaja, sagorevanja fosilnih goriva, procesa sagorevanja biomase, šumskih požara, poljoprivrede (Monks i sar., 2009; Chin i sar., 2007). Prirodni izvori aerosola su vulkanske erupcije, zemljišna (terestrična) i mineralna prašina, morska so, vulkanski pepeo i vegetacja (fragmenti biljaka, mikroorganizmi, polen i drugo) (Monks i sar., 2009; Chin i sar., 2007; Chin i sar. 2009).
Mikroskopske čestice koje lebde u vazduhu kao što su čestice dima, resuspendovanog ulja, fotohemijski nastale čestice, čestice soli, čestice iz okeana, atmosferski oblaci formirani od kapljica vode ili čestica leda, su primeri aerosola. U aerosole spadaju još i dim, magla, izmaglica, smog (Hinds, 1999; Reist, 1993). Za sve vrste aerosola, osim za morsku so, mineralnu prašinu (pustinjski pesak/zemljište), izvori su uglavnom antropogeni ili biogeni (oni koji se odnose na biosferu). Primeri primarnih biogenih aerosola (PBA) su polen, bakterije, gljivice, spore, virusi i fragmenti životinja i biljaka (Monks i sar., 2009).
Čestice iz vazduha ili aerosoli su podeljeni u dve grupe na osnovu njihovog porekla. Primarni aerosoli emituju se direktno iz izvora u atmosferu (Monks i sar., 2009; Gill i sar., 2010; Rypdal i sar., 2005). Antropogene emisije doprinose formiranju sekundarnih aerosola (Isaksen i sar., 2009). Sekundarni aerosoli formiraju se u reakciji gasova i čestica (Monks i sar., 2009) i/ili kondenzacijom gasovitih jedinjenja na već postojećim česticama aerosola (Monks i sar., 2009; Day i Pandis, 2011). Najdominantnije hemijske komponente čestica aerosola su sulfati, nitrati, amonijum jedinjenja, morska so, mineralna prašina, organska jedinjenja, crni ili elementarni ugljenik (Monks i sar., 2009).
Crni ugljenik black carbon (BC) je primarni aerosol, dok su sulfati sekundarni aerosli nastali oksidacijom sumor-dioksida. Deo SO2 koji je oksidovan u odnosu na deo koji se izgubi suvom depozicijom na površini varira od regiona do regiona. Uklanjanje sulfatnih čestica mokrom depozicijom takođe zavisi od regiona i sezone (Rypdal i sar., 2005). Vulkani su izvor sumpor-dioksida, koji zajedno sa gasovima koji nastaju iz okeana raspadanjem organske materije, i ugljovodonicima koji se emituju, pretvaraju se u sekundarne aerosole atmosferskim hemijskim procesima (CCSP, 2009).
Organski aerosoli predstavljaju značajan deo mase PM2,5 i kategorišu se kao primarne (POA) i sekundarne organske aerosoli (SOA) (Day i Pandis, 2011). Aerosoli organskog ugljenika (organic carbon, OC) mogu da se emituju direktno iz izvora sagorevanja ili se formiraju u atmosferi kondenzacijom organskih jedinjenja. Količina sekundarnih čestica koje se formiraju u atmosferi zavisi od prisutnih komponenti i vrste emisije (Rypdal i sar., 2005).
Karbonatni aerosoli prolaze kroz proces “starenja” gde se prevlače slojem sumporne kiseline i/ili se oksiduju atmosferskim oksidansima. Ovaj proces čini ove čestice lakšim za uklanjanje kišom, što i predstavlja glavni mehanizam njihovog uklanjanja (Rypdal i sar., 2005).
Koncentracija, sastav i veličina atmosferskih aerosola su vremenski i prostorno veoma promenljivi (Monks i sar., 2009; Kim i sar., 2011). Veličina aerosola može da varira od 0,001 do 100 µm prema Gill-u i saradnicima (2010), ili od nekoliko nm (10-9 m) do nekoliko stotina µm u prečniku, kako je dato u radu Chin-a i saradnika (2007). Submikrometarske čestice čine uglavnom ugljenične i neke neorganske aerosoli, a supermikrometarske čine neorganske čestice kao što su morska so ili prašina. Tečni aerosoli su sferičnog oblika, dok čvrsti aerosoli imaju nepravilan oblik, što zavisi od njihovog sastava i načina nastajanja. Najviše aerosola nalazi se u donjim slojevima atmosfere, šireći se oko 1 km u prečniku (Gill i sar., 2010). Aerosoli su poznati kao uzrok regionalne izmaglice (Chin i sar., 2007). U kratkom vremenskom periodu troposferski aerosoli se uklanjanju sedimentacijom, a najćešće padavinama u periodu od oko 7 dana (Gill i sar., 2010).
Aerosoli imaju različit uticaj na životnu sredinu. Kada se nalaze u blizini površine imaju negativan uticaj na respiratorne organe i ljudsko zdravlje (Chin i sar., 2009). Aerosoli sa prečnicima manjim od 10 µm, mogu negatitivno uticati na zdravlje ljudi jer prodiru u pluća, dok oni sa prečnikom manjim od 2,5 µm predstavljaju najozbiljniji rizik jer utiču na respiratorne i kardiovaskularne bolesti pa čak izazivaju i smrt (Chin i sar., 2007).
Aerosoli utiču direktno na klimu rasejavanjem i apsorpcijom zračenja, i indirektno menjajući mikrofiziku oblaka i njihovo trajanje (Satheesh i sar., 2010). Sve ove čestice utiču na vidljivost i klimatske promene, ali i na kvalitet života i ljudsko zdravlje (Hinds, 1999.; Reist, 1993.).
Translation - English 1. INTRODUCTION
The main sources of pollution of the atmosphere are combustion of fossil fuels, anthropogenic activities and other human activities. Side effect of all the forms of combustion is emission of CO2. The products of incomplete combustion, CO and NOx, can react with the other components of the atmosphere. The effect of these reactions is the formation of ozone and other greenhouse gases. Aerosols, which have a direct negative impact on human health and ecosystems, are released from the processes of fuel combustion.(Ramanathan and Feng 2009; Serbula et al. 2013a; Kalinovic et al. 2014; Serbula et al. 2014a; Kalinovic et al. 2016). The composition of the atmosphere is determined by natural and anthropogenic emissions as the inflows, outflows and the flow of energy in the atmosphere. The source of this energy is sunlight, ultraviolet and infrared radiation (Isaksen et al. 2009).
Aerosols may be defined as a two-phase system consisting of solid and liquid particles suspended in a gas (Reist 1993; Hinds 1999; Gill et al. 2010; Satheesh et al. 2010). Aerosols originate from various anthropogenic and natural sources (Reist 1993; Hinds 1999; Satheesh and Moorthy 2005; Monkset al. 2009).They are emitted from industry, thermal power plants, transportation, fossil fuel combustion, biomass combustion processes, forest fires, agriculture, etc.(Chin et al. 2007; Monks et al. 2009). Natural sources of aerosols are volcanic eruptions, terrestrial and mineral dust, sea salt and vegetation (fragments of plants, microorganisms, pollen, etc.) (Chin et al. 2007; Chin et al. 2009; Monks et al. 2009).
Microscopic particles suspended in the air, such as smoke particles, resuspended oil, photochemically formed particles, salt particles, the particles from the oceans, atmospheric clouds formed from water droplets or ice particles are the examples of aerosols. The aerosols also include smoke, fog, mist and smog (Reist 1993; Hinds 1999). For all the types of aerosols except for sea salt and mineral dust (desert sand/soil), the sources are mostly anthropogenic and biogenic. The examples of primary biogenic aerosols (PBA) are pollen, bacteria, fungi, spores, viruses, and fragments of animals and plants (Monkset al. 2009).
Airborne aerosols can be divided into two groups based on their origin. Primary aerosols are emitted directly from the source into the atmosphere (Rypdal et al. 2005; Monks et al. 2009; Gill et al. 2010). Secondary aerosols are formed due to the reaction of gases and particles (Monks et al. 2009) and/or by condensation of the gaseous compounds on pre-existing particles of the aerosols (Monks et al. 2009; Day and Pandis 2011). The most dominant chemical components of aerosols are sulfates, nitrates, ammonium compounds, sea salt, mineral dust, organic compounds, black or elemental carbon (Monks et al. 2009).
Black carbon (BC) is the primary aerosol, whereas the sulfates are secondary aerosols formed by the oxidation of SO2. A part of the SO2,which is oxidized as compared to the part which is deposited, varies depending on the region and season(Rypdal et al. 2005). Sulfur dioxide from volcanoes, together with the gases from the oceans, and emitted hydrocarbons, are transformed into secondary aerosols by atmospheric chemical processes (CCSP 2009).
Organic aerosols are a significant part of the PM2.5 mass and are categorized as primary (POA) and secondary organic aerosols (SOA) (Day and Pandis 2011). Aerosols of organic carbon (OC) can be emitted directly from combustion sources or get formed in the atmosphere by condensation of organic compounds. The amount of secondary particles which are formed in the atmosphere depends on the present components and the type of emission (Rypdal et al. 2005). Carbonaceous aerosols undergo a process of ‟aging” in which they are coated with a layer of sulfuric acid and/or are oxidized by atmospheric oxidants. This process makes it easier for the particles to be removed by rain, which is the main mechanism for their removal from the atmosphere(Rypdal et al. 2005).
The concentration, composition and size of atmospheric aerosols are temporally and spatially highly variable (Monkset al. 2009; Kim et al. 2011). Aerosol size may range from 0.001 to 100 µm according to Gill et al. (2010), or from a few nm (10-9 m) to several hundred µm in diameter, as given in the paper of Chin et al. (2007). Carbon and some inorganic aerosols are the main constituents of submicrometer particles,whereassupermicrometer particles are usually composed of inorganic particles such as sea salt or dust. Liquid aerosols are spherical in shape, while solid aerosols have irregular shapes, depending on their composition and formation mode. Most of the aerosols could be found in the lower layers of the atmosphere, spreading around 1 km in diameter from the emition source(Gill et al. 2010). In a short period of time, tropospheric aerosols are removed by sedimentation, and most frequently by rainfalls during a period of about 7 days (Gill et al. 2010).
Aerosols have a different impact on the environment. Aerosols with diameters of less than 10 µm, can have a negative effect on human health if they enter lungs, while those with a diameter less than 2.5 µm pose the most serious risk because of their effects on respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and they may even cause death (Chin et al. 2007). Aerosols affect climate directly by scattering the light and radiation absorption, and indirectly by changing the microphysics of clouds and their duration (Satheesh et al. 2010).Aerosols are also known to cause regional haze (Chin et al. 2007). All these particles affect the visibility and climate change, but also the quality of life and human health (Reist 1993; Hinds 1999).
English to Serbian: The Historic "Paris Agreement" on Climate Change General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Management
Source text - English What Should We know About the Historic ‘Paris Agreement’ on Climate Change?
Here are answers to five key questions
Negotiators from nearly 200 countries gathered in Paris Saturday reached the world’s most significant agreement to address climate change since the issue first emerged as a major political priority decades ago.
Here are answers to five key questions about the agreement:
What does the Paris Agreement mean?
The Paris Agreement is meant to signal the beginning of the end of more than 100 years of fossil fuels serving as the primary engine of economic growth and shows that governments from around the world take climate change seriously. The inclusion of both developed and developing countries, including those that rely on revenue from oil and gas production, demonstrates a unity never seen before on this issue.
Read More: World Approves Historic ‘Paris Agreement’ to Address Climate Change
The deal requires any country that ratifies it to act to stem its greenhouse gas emissions in the coming century, with the goal of peaking greenhouse gas emissions “as soon as possible” and continuing the reductions as the century progresses. Countries will aim to keep global temperatures from rising more than 2°C (3.6°F) by 2100 with an ideal target of keeping temperature rise below 1.5°C (2.7°F).
The deal will also encourage trillions of dollars of capital to be spent adapting to the effects of climate change—including infrastructure like sea walls and programs to deal with poor soil—and developing renewable energy sources like solar and wind power. The text of the agreement includes a provision requiring developed countries to send $100 billion annually to their developing counterparts beginning in 2020. That figure will be a “floor” that is expected to increase with time.
The agreement gives countries considerable leeway in determining how to cut their emissions but mandates that they report transparently on those efforts. Every five years nations will be required to assess their progress towards meeting their climate commitments and submit new plans to strengthen them.
Is the agreement binding?
The legal nature of the deal–whether it will be binding–had been a hotly debated topic in the lead up to the negotiations. The agreement walks a fine line, binding in some elements like reporting requirements, while leaving other aspects of the deal—such as the setting of emissions targets for any individual country—as non-binding.
How did the negotiations proceed?
The Paris Agreement marks the culmination of years groundwork laid in the aftermath of a failed attempt at achieving a previous global agreement at a 2009 climate conference in Copenhagen. Countries settled on a bottom-up approach allowing each nation to submit its own plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions rather than trying to agree on a one-size-fits-all strategy, greatly simplifying the job of negotiations.
After several less-publicized meetings, negotiators from the nearly 200 countries gathered on November 30 at a conference center in Le Bourget airport just outside Paris. A week and a half of talks yielded a draft agreement, after which the most intense portion of the negotiations began on Thursday. Delegates met in closed-door meetings through the night and presidents called their counterparts in other countries. The French leaders running the conference followed along, revising the text of the draft agreement as necessary. The final agreement ultimately required compromises from every party.
Who were the key players in getting a deal?
France, the host country, has received near-universal praise for its handling of the conference. The leaders of host countries in climate negotiations write the actual text of agreement by listening to the concerns of all the countries present. By all accounts, France deftly accounted for all those concerns allowing for passage of the deal without objection.
Leadership from the U.S., China and India also played a key role in facilitating the agreement. All three countries have acted as road blocks in past attempts to achieve climate deals, but in the lead up to this conference each made strong commitments to reduce their own greenhouse gas emissions and to contribute to a positive discussion in Paris.
Vulnerable small island countries, particularly the Marshall Islands, also emerged as the surprise power players of the conference. Representatives from countries in this group pushed hard for negotiators to set a more ambitious climate target and largely succeeded. A “high-ambition coalition” led by the Marshall Islands gained support from more than 100 countries, including the U.S., Brazil and members of the European Union, and their efforts resulted in the inclusion of long-term targets and a lower “ideal” warming target.
So everyone’s happy?
Representatives from the vast majority of countries party to the agreement walked away satisfied with the new climate deal. In a comment period following the adoption, delegate after delegate praised the text as a generally fair-and-balanced representation of what all countries wanted—despite significant compromises on issues like how to handle losses and damages related to climate change.
The agreement also lived up to the demands of many environmental activists, who were most please that the deal included a long-term emissions reduction goal, the five-year review cycle and strong measures to ensure transparency. John Coequyt, the Sierra Club’s director of federal and international climate campaigns, said the agreement included “all the core elements that the environmental community wanted.”
Others criticized the deal as too weak and for not providing enough support for developing countries. Friends of the Earth U.S. President Erich Pica said the agreement is “not a fair, just or science-based deal” because it fails to adequately address losses due to climate change in the most vulnerable countries. Some conservatives in the United States who disagree with the science behind climate change also criticized the deal. (The agreement was carefully crafted to avoid needing approval from U.S. Congress).
Translation - Serbian Sta Treba Znati o Istorijskom Sporazumu o Klimatskim Promenama
Evo odgovora na pet ključnih pitanja
Pregovarači iz skoro 200 zemalja koji su se u subotu okupili u Parizu postigli su najvažniji sporazum na svetu o rešavanju problema klimatskih promena od kako se taj problem prvi put pojavio kao glavni politički prioritet pre nekoliko decenija.
Ovo su odgovori na pet ključnih pitanja u vezi sa dogovorom:
Sta predstavlja Pariski Sporazum?
Pariski Sporazum treba da signalizira početak kraja više od sto godina stare upotrebe fosilnih goriva koja služe kao primarni pogon ekonomskog rasta i pokazuje da vlade širom sveta uzimaju klimatske promene za ozbiljno. Učestvovanje i razvijenih zemalja i zemalja u razvoju, uključujući i one koje se oslanjaju na prihod od proizvodnje nafte i gasa, pokazuje jedinstvo koje nikada ranije nije vidjeno po ovom pitanju.
Čitajte jos: Svet Odobrava Istorijski Pariski Sporazum za Rešavanje Pitanja Klimatskih Promena
Dogovor zahteva da bilo koja država koja ga ratifikuje otkrije poreklo emisije gasova u predstojećem veku, sa ciljem zaustavljanja emisije gasova staklene bašte “što je pre moguće” i nastavljanja njihovog smanjenja kako vek odmiče. Zemlje će imati za cilj sprečavanje da temperatura raste više od 2°C (3.6°F) do 2100. godine sa idealnim ciljem očuvanja rasta temperature ispod 1,5°C (2,7°F).
Dogovor će takodje podstaći da se trilioni dolara kapitala potroše na adaptiranje na efekte klimatskih promena – uključujući infrastrukturu kao sto je podizanje zidova na obalama mora i projekte rešavanja problema osiromašene zemlje – i razvijanje obnovljivih izvora energije kao što su solarna energija i energija vetra. Tekst Sporazuma uključuje proviziju po kojoj se od razvijenih zemalja traži da šalju $ 100 biliona godišnje svojim partnerima zemljama u razvoju počev od 2020. godine. Taj iznos će biti minimalan i očekuje se da poraste vremenom.
Sporazum daje zemljama značajnu slobodu u određivanju kako da smanje svoje emisije, ali zahteva da transparentno podnose izveštaj o tim naporima. Svakih pet godina države će morati da procene svoj napredak ka ispunjavanju svojih klimatskih obaveza i dostave nove planove kako da ih ojačaju.
Da li je Sporazum obavezujući?
O pravnoj prirodi dogovora - da li će biti obavezujući – vođena je žestoka rasprava na putu ka postizanju dogovora. Sporazum postavlja tanku nit, obavezujuću u nekim elementima kao što su zahtevi izveštavanja, ostavljajući druge aspekte dogovora - kao što je postavljanje ciljnih emisija za svaku pojedinu zemlju - kao neobavezujuće.
Kako su pregovori tekli?
Sporazum u Parizu označava kulminaciju dugogodišnjeg pripremnog rada neposredno nakon neuspelog pokušaja da se postigne prethodni globalni sporazum na klimatskoj konferenciji u Kopenhagenu 2009. Zemlje su se dogovorile u vezi sa pristupom odozdo prema gore, omogućavajući svakoj naciji da podnese svoj plan za smanjenje emisije gasova staklene bašte, a ne da pokušavaju da se dogovore o jednoobraznoj strategiji, što je u velikoj meri pojednostavilo posao pregovora.
Nakon nekoliko manje objavljivanih sastanaka, pregovarači iz skoro 200 zemalja okupili su se 30. novembra u konferencijskom centru na Le Bourget aerodromu nadomak Pariza. Nedelju i po dana razgovora iznedrilo je nacrt Sporazuma, nakon čega je najintenzivniji deo pregovora počeo u četvrtak. Delegati su se sastali iza zatvorenih vrata cele noći, a predsednici su pozvali svoje kolege iz drugih zemalja. Francuski lideri koji su vodili konferenciju pridružili su se, revidirajući tekst nacrta Sporazuma, po potrebi. Konačni dogovor na kraju je tražio kompromise od svih strana.
Ko su bili ključni učesnici u postizanju dogovora?
Francuska, zemlja domaćin, primila je skoro univerzalne pohvale za vođenje konferencije. Lideri zemalja domaćina u pregovorima o klimatskim promenama pišu dotični tekst Sporazuma slušajući probleme svih prisutnih zemalja. Po svemu sudeći, Francuska je vešto uzela u obzir one probleme koji dozvoljavaju postizanje dogovora bez prigovora.
Rukovodstvo iz SAD, Kine i Indije takođe je odigralo ključnu ulogu u olakšavanju postizanja dogovora. Sve tri zemlje su blokirale put u prethodnim pokušajima da se postignu klimatski dogovori, ali u predvođenju ove konferencije svaka od ovih zemalja je učinila snažno opredeljenje da smanji svoju emisiju gasova staklene bašte i da doprinese pozitivnoj raspravi u Parizu.
Ugrožene male ostrvske zemlje, posebno Maršalska Ostrva, takođe su se pojavile kao iznenađenje u vidu jakih igrača konferencije. Predstavnici zemalja u ovoj grupi snažno su pritisli pregovarače da se postave ambiciozniji klimatski ciljevi i uglavnom su uspeli. "Visoko ambiciozna koalicija" predvođena Maršalskim ostrvima dobila je podršku više od 100 zemalja, uključujući SAD, Brazil i članice Evropske unije, a njihovi napori su rezultirali uključivanjem dugoročnih ciljeva i manje "idealnog" približnog cilja.
Dakle, svi su zadovoljni?
Predstavnici iz većine zemalja potpisnica sporazuma otišli su zadovoljni novim klimatskim sporazumom. U periodu komentarisanja nakon usvajanja, delegat po delegat hvalio je tekst kao opšte fer-i-uravnoteženo predstavljanje onoga što su sve zemlje želele, uprkos značajnim kompromisima o pitanjima kao što su kako se baviti gubicima i štetom nastalom u vezi sa klimatskim promenama.
Sporazum je takođe ispunio zahteve mnogih ekoloških aktivista, koji su bili najviše zadovoljni što je dogovor uključio cilj dugoročnog smanjenja emisije gasova, petogodišnji ciklus provere i jakih mera da se obezbedi transparentnost. John Coequyt, direktor Sierra kluba saveznih i međunarodnih klimatskih kampanja, izjavio je da sporazum obuhvata "sve ključne elemente koje je zajednica zaštite životne sredine želela."
Drugi su kritikovali sporazum kao preslab i da ne pruža dovoljnu podršku zemljama u razvoju. Predsednik Prijatelja Zemlje u SAD Erich Pica je izjavio da sporazum "nije fer, pravedan ili naučno zasnovani dogovor" zato što se neadekvatno odnosi na gubitke usled klimatskih promena u najugroženijim zemljama. Neki konzervativci u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama koji se ne slažu sa naučnim objašnjenjem klimatskih promena takođe su kritikovali dogovor. (Sporazum je pažljivo osmišljen kako bi se izbeglo traženje odobrenja od strane američkog Kongresa).
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Translation education
Master's degree - Faculty of Phylosophy, Nis
Experience
Years of experience: 42. Registered at ProZ.com: Dec 2017.
I am an English language teacher (Master's degree), with 34 years of experience. I teach at the Technical faculty in Bor, University of Belgrade. Before that I worked in primary and secondary school. I have taken part in some projects concerning education in secondary vocational schools.
Apart from teaching at the faculty, I do translations of academic papers (areas: environmental issues, ecology, management...), many of which have been published in reputable journals.
I could provide a link to the journals where my translations are published to interested clients.
Keywords: Serbo-Croat, Bosnian, technology, environment, ecology, management, art and crafts, cultural events, education, psychology
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