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English to Indonesian: Students’ Perceptions Towards the Implementation of 2013 Curriculum in English Class of SMP Negeri 1 Gresik General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Education / Pedagogy
Source text - English ABSTRACT
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 2013 CURRICULUM IN ENGLISH CLASS OF SMP NEGERI 1 GRESIK
As the time changes, there are changes followed that people need to fit to, including changes in education. After the independence of Indonesia, there were nine curricula that had been implemented. The government has formulated and is implementing a new curriculum called 2013 Curriculum or simply K-13. The newest of the nine old curricula, Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan or School Based Curriculum is still implemented in certain schools due to the some negative perceptions on K-13.
This research discovered the perceptions towards the implementation of K-13 in English class of SMP Negeri 1 Gresik, specifically the students’ perceptions in terms of the materials, scientific approach, and assessment. The researcher employed descriptive qualitative research. The subjects were five students; two high-achieved students, one middle-achieved student, and two low-achieved students. Besides the researcher herself as the main instrument in gathering and analysing the data, the researcher also used interviews.
From the data analysis the researcher concluded that students’ perceptions towards all of the materials, scientific approach, and assessment of K-13 in their English class were mostly positive. There were only small numbers of negative perceptions. For the most part, it can be inferred that K-13 in the class has implemented appropriately with the existed theories about this curriculum and students’ perceptions were mostly positive despite their differences in answering questions.
PERSEPSI SISWA TERHADAP IMPLEMENTASI KURIKULUM 2013 DI KELAS BAHASA INGGRIS SMP NEGERI 1 GRESIK
Menyusul perubahan zaman, masyarakat perlu menyesuaikan pada perubahan yang terjadi, termasuk dalam pendidikan. Setelah kemerdekaan Indonesia, ada sembilan kurikulum yang pernah diimplementasikan. Pemerintah telah merumuskan dan sedang menerapkan sebuah kurikulum baru bernama Kurikulum 2013 atau K-13. Kurikulum terbaru dari sembilan kurikulum lama, Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) masih diterapkan di beberapa sekolah karena adanya beberapa persepsi negatif pada K-13.
Penelitian ini menemukan persepsi-persepsi mengenai pengimplementasian K-13 di kelas Bahasa Inggris SMP Negeri 1 Gresik, khususnya persepsi siswa pada materi pelajaran, pendekatan saintifik, dan asesmen. Peneliti menggunakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. Subyeknya adalah lima murid; dua murid berprestasi tinggi, satu murid berprestasi menengah, dan dua murid berprestasi rendah. Disamping peneliti sebagai instrumen utama dalam mengumpulkan dan menganalisis data, peneliti juga menggunakan wawancara.
Dari analisis data, peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa persepsi siswa terhadap materi, pendekatan saintifik, dan assessment dalam K-13 di kelas Bahasa Inggris mereka sebagian besar positif. Terdapat hanya sejumlah kecil persepsi negatif. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar K-13 di kelas tersebut diterapkan sesuai dengan teori yang ada tentang kurikulum ini dan persepsi siswa sebagian positif disamping perbedaan mereka dalam menjawab pertanyaan.
Kata Kunci: persepsi siswa, kurikulum 2013, Bahasa Inggris, K-13, materi, pendekatan saintifik, asesmen
English to Indonesian: Children of Muhammad General field: Other Detailed field: Religion
Source text - English Children of Muhammad
The common view is that the Islamic prophet Muhammad had three sons, named Abd Allah, Ibrahim, and Qasim, and four daughters, named Fatima, Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum, and Zaynab. The children of Muhammad are said to have been born to his first wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid, except his son Ibrahim, who was born to Maria al-Qibtiyya. None of Muhammad's sons reached adulthood, but he had an adult foster son, Zayd ibn Harithah. Daughters of Muhammad all reached adulthood but only Fatima survived her father. Citing, among others, the advanced age of Khadija, some Shia sources contend that Fatima was the only biological daughter of Muhammad, as she is known to have enjoyed a close relationship with Muhammad, unlike Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum, and Zaynab. That Fatima was the only biological daughter of Muhammad appears to be the mainstream view among Shia Muslims.
Sunni view
In chronological order, most Sunni sources list the children of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as
Qasim (598–601)
Zainab (599–629)
Ruqayya (601–624)
Umm Kulthum (603–630)
Fatima (605–632)[1]
Abd Allah (611–615)
Ibrahim (630–632)
The Sunni view is that they were all born to Muhammad's first wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid, except Ibrahim, who was born to Maria al-Qibtiyya.
Shia view
It is improbable that the elderly Khadija could have given birth to so many children. Some Shia sources therefore contend that Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum, and Zainab were adopted by Muhammad after the death of their mother Hala, who was Khadija's sister, or that the three were daughters of Khadija from an earlier marriage. Before successively marrying the early Muslim Uthman ibn Affan, Ruqayya and Umm Kulthum were initially married to polytheists, something which Muhammad likely would have not permitted for his biological daughters, Shia authors argue. They also cite the absence of historical evidence for a close relationship between Muhammad and Ruqayya, Zainab, or Umm Kulthum, unlike Fatima. That Fatima was Muhammad's only biological daughter may indeed be the mainstream view in
Shia Islam, or at least in Twelver Shi'ism, the main branch of Shia Islam. In particular, this belief seems to be prevalent among the Shias of South Asia.
Descendants
Muhammad's sons all died in childhood, although he also had an adult foster son, Zayd ibn Harithah. Some have suggested that the early deaths of his sons were detrimental to a hereditary-based system of succession to Muhammad. The alternative view is that the descendants of the past prophets
become the spiritual and material heirs to them in the Quran, and that the succession to the past prophets is a matter settled by divine selection in the Quran and not by the faithful.
Muhammad's daughters reached adulthood but they all died relatively young, such that none survived him except Fatima. Fatima married Muhammad's cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib. It is through her that Muhammad's progeny has spread throughout the Muslim world. The descendants of Fatima are given the honorific titles sayyid (lit. 'lord, sir') or sharif (lit. 'noble'), and are respected in the Muslim community. Ruqayya and Umm Kulthum married Uthman ibn Affan one after another, and Zainab married Abu al-As ibn al-Rabi, another companion of Muhammad. Umm Kulthum remained childless whereas Ruqayya gave birth to a boy Abd Allah, who died in childhood. Zaynab gave birth to a son, named Ali, who also died in childhood, and a daughter Umama, whom Ali ibn Abi Talib married sometime after the death of Fatima in 632 CE. Muhammad's attitude and treatment towards his children, enshrined in the hadith literature, is viewed by Muslims as an exemplar to be imitated.
Translation - Indonesian Anak-Anak Muhammad
Pandangan umumnya adalah nabi Islam Muhammad memiliki tiga putra, yaitu Abdullah, Ibrahim, dan Qasim, dan empat putri, yaitu Fatimah, Ruqayyah, Ummu Kultsum, dan Zainab. Anak-anak Muhammad konon lahir dari istri pertamanya Khadijah binti Khuwailid, kecuali putranya Ibrahim, yang lahir dari Mariah al- Qibthiyah. Tidak ada satu pun putra Muhammad yang mencapai usia dewasa, namun ia memiliki anak angkat yang sudah dewasa, Zaid bin Haritsah. Putri-putri Muhammad semuanya mencapai usia dewasa, tetapi hanya Fatimah yang hidup melampaui ayahnya. Mengutip, antara lain, usia Khadijah yang sudah lanjut, beberapa sumber Syiah berpendapat bahwa Fatimah adalah satu-satunya putri kandung Muhammad, karena dia diketahui memiliki hubungan dekat dengan Muhammad, tidak seperti Ruqayyah, Ummu Kultsum, dan Zainab. Bahwa Fatimah adalah satu-satunya putri kandung Muhammad tampaknya menjadi pandangan umum di kalangan Muslim Syiah.
Pandangan Sunni
Dalam urutan kronologis, sebagian besar sumber Sunni mencantumkan anak-anak Nabi Muhammad sebagai:
Qasim (598–601)
Zainab (599–629)
Ruqayyah (601–624)
Ummu Kultsum (603–630)
Fatimah (605–632)
Abdullah (611–615)
Ibrahim (630–632)
Pandangan Sunni menyatakan bahwa mereka semua dilahirkan dari istri pertama Muhammad, Khadijah binti Khuwailid, kecuali Ibrahim, yang lahir dari Mariah al-Qibthiyah.
Pandangan Syiah
Mustahil Khadijah yang sudah tua bisa melahirkan anak sebanyak itu. Oleh karena itu, beberapa sumber Syiah berpendapat bahwa Ruqayyah, Ummu Kultsum, dan Zainab diadopsi oleh Muhammad setelah kematian ibu mereka, Hala, yang merupakan saudara perempuan Khadijah, atau ketiganya adalah putri Khadijah dari pernikahan sebelumnya. Sebelum menikah dengan Muslim paling awal Utsman bin Affan secara berturutan, Ruqayyah dan Ummu Kultsum awalnya menikah dengan para penganut politeisme, sesuatu yang kemungkinan besar tidak akan diizinkan oleh Muhammad untuk putri-putri kandungnya menurut para penulis Syiah. Mereka juga mengutip tidak adanya bukti sejarah tentang hubungan dekat antara Muhammad dan Ruqayyah, Zainab, atau Ummu Kultsum, tidak seperti Fatimah.
Bahwa Fatimah adalah satu-satunya putri kandung Muhammad mungkin memang merupakan pandangan umum dalam Islam Syiah, atau setidaknya dalam Syiah Dua Belas Imam, cabang utama Islam Syiah. Secara khusus, kepercayaan ini nampaknya lazim di kalangan Syiah di Asia Selatan.
Keturunan
Putra-putra Muhammad semuanya meninggal saat masih kanak-kanak, meskipun ia juga memiliki putra angkat yang sudah dewasa, Zaid bin Haritsah. Beberapa orang berpendapat bahwa kematian dini putra-putranya merugikan sistem suksesi keturunan Muhammad. Pandangan lainnya adalah keturunan para nabi terdahulu menjadi pewaris spiritual dan materi mereka dalam Al-Qur'an, dan bahwa suksesi para nabi terdahulu adalah perkara yang ditentukan oleh seleksi ilahi dalam Al-Qur'an dan bukan oleh orang-orang beriman.
Putri-putri Muhammad mencapai usia dewasa tetapi mereka semua meninggal dalam usia yang relatif muda, sehingga tidak ada yang hidup melampauinya kecuali Fatimah. Fatimah menikah dengan sepupu Muhammad Ali bin Abi Thalib. Melalui dialah keturunan Muhammad menyebar ke seluruh dunia Islam. Keturunan Fatimah diberi gelar kehormatan sayyid (terj. har. 'tuan, pak') atau syarif (terj. har. 'terhormat') dan dihormati di komunitas Muslim. Ruqayyah dan Ummu Kultsum menikah dengan Utsman bin Affan satu per satu, dan Zainab menikah dengan Abu al-Ash bin ar-Rabi', sahabat Muhammad lainnya. Ummu Kultsum tetap tidak memiliki anak sedangkan Ruqayyah melahirkan anak laki-laki, Abdullah, yang meninggal di masa kanak-kanak. Zainab melahirkan seorang putra bernama Ali, yang juga meninggal saat masih kanak-kanak, dan seorang putri yaitu Umamah, yang dinikahi Ali bin Abi Thalib beberapa waktu setelah kematian Fatimah pada tahun 632 M. Sikap dan perlakuan Muhammad terhadap anak-anaknya, yang diabadikan dalam literatur hadis, dipandang umat Islam sebagai teladan yang patut ditiru.
English to Indonesian: Islamic Vegetarianism General field: Other Detailed field: Religion
Source text - English Islamic vegetarianism
Islamic vegetarianism and veganism is the practice of abstention from meat (and other animal products in case of vegans) among Muslims. The vast majority of Muslims eat meat; many Islamic jurists consider vegetarianism permissible but not superior to meat-eating. The religious arguments for the vegetarian diet include the requirement for compassion imposed on Muslims by Quran and sunnah and the concept of stewardship (khalifa). Modern vegetarian Muslims often encounter prejudice for their diet. A particular case is the tradition of killing an animal during the celebration of the Eid al-Adha, which many Muslims see as compulsory or at least an emphasized sunnah.
Background
Vegetarianism is very rare among Muslims, but is widespread among the adherents of other religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. Many Muslims eat meat as often as they can.
Although the Quran and the hadith strongly encourage Muslims to treat animals humanely and the Islamic prophet Muhammad spoke against recreational hunting, Quran explicitly permits the consumption of (halal) meat in the first ayah of the al-Ma'idah sura. The rules of halal ritual slaughter mention that the animal must not suffer more than needed. Historically, the first Muslims, nomadic Arabs, had to eat meat to sustain themselves.
Favourable views
Several Sufis, including Suhrawardi Hamiduddin Nagori from Nagaur, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen and some others in North Africa were practising a strict vegan diet. The 9th–10th century secret society Brethren of Purity produced an epistle titled The Case of the Animals versus Man, in which they relayed a story about Rabi'a al- Basri telling Hasan al-Basri that animals come to her but run from him because of his meat diet. Indian Islamic scholar Bashir Ahmad Masri, a pioneer of animal welfare, has expressed his dissatisfaction with the amount of cruelty inflicted upon animals stemming from anthropocentrism and advocated for a vegetarian Muslim diet. Some thinkers connect the topic of meat abstention with the khilafa, duty of stewardship imposed upon humans by God.
Several fatwas issued by jurists such as Ebrahim Desai, Hamza Yusuf, Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, Muzammil H. Siddiqi, Muhammad al-Munajjid and Ali Khamenei state that abstaining from meat is permissible for Muslims as long as they do not deem it an obligation or a way of being a better Muslim than others. Inayat Khan concluded that not eating meat is desirable because meat "hinders spiritual
progress" while the act of killing is unkind. Modern proponents of Islamic veganism cite the excessive suffering of the factory-farmed animals, the environment al harms of the meat and dairy industries and thezoonotic infections as the reasons to switch to a vegan diet. Vegetarian believers express their concerns about whether any meat from inhumanely raised animal can be halal, even if it has been certified as such. Muslim doctors advocating for vegetarianism from the health standpoint also use the example of Muhammad as a person leading a "mostly vegetarian" lifestyle. Modern Muslim academics who advocate for vegetarianism include Duke McLeod and Mohamed Ghilan.
Unfavourable views
Iraqi Islamic scholar Mawil Izzi Dien ruled that Islamic vegetarianism is completely unacceptable. Izz al- Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam: "The unbeliever who prohibits the slaughtering of an animal [for no reason but] to achieve the interest of the animal is incorrect because in so doing he gives preference to a lower, khasis, animal over a higher, nafis, animal" in "Qawa'id al-ahkam fi masalih al-anam" Ibn Hazm believed that only creatures who can show an understanding of Islamic laws are subject to it. Pakistani Islamic scholar Abul A'la Mawdudi said that Islam allows humans killing other animals for food and permits killing animals perceived as harmful because humans are the khalifa (deputies) of God. Some scholars praise reduced meat consumption, others stress the importance of humane treatment of animals, but not support vegetarianism.
Vegetarians were historically often seen as heretics; examples include al-Ma'arri. The view that vegetarianism is un-Islamic stems from the historic animosity between Muslims and practitioners of Buddhism and Hinduism. Modern Muslim vegetarians and vegans often have to face prejudice and hostility.
Eid al-Adha sacrifice
The custom of animal slaughter during the Eid al-Adha is widespread among Muslims, but most jurists rule that killing animals on that day is desired but not compulsory. Bashir Ahmad Masri and several other faqih suggested replacing the animal sacrifice with charitable donations or fasting. Several others voiced their opposition to the current practice of "excessive" killing of animals whose meat often stays uneaten and goes to waste. Activist Shahid Ali Muttaqi wrote that the slaughter during the celebration of Eid al-Adha is performed for people's nafs.
Muslims who are practising veganism either donate money to have the slaughter done in their name without participating in it, or donate to other charitable purposes.
Translation - Indonesian Vegetarianisme Islam
Vegetarianisme dan veganisme Islam adalah praktik berpantang daging (dan produk hewani lainnya dalam kasus vegan) di kalangan umat Islam. Mayoritas umat Islam makan daging; banyak ahli fikih menganggap vegetarianisme diperbolehkan tetapi tidak lebih baik dari memakan daging. Argumen keagamaan untuk pola makan vegetarian mencakup keharusan untuk berbelas kasih yang dikenakan pada umat Islam berdasarkan Al-Qur'an dan sunah serta konsep pelayanan (khalifah). Muslim vegetarian modern sering menghadapi prasangka terhadap pola makan mereka. Contoh kasus khusus adalah tradisi menyembelih hewan pada saat perayaan Iduladha, yang oleh banyak umat Islam dipandang sebagai suatu keharusan atau setidaknya merupakan sunah yang ditekankan.
Latar belakang
Vegetarianisme sangat jarang terjadi di kalangan umat Islam, namun tersebar luas di kalangan penganut agama lain seperti Hinduisme dan Buddhisme. Banyak umat Islam makan daging sesering mungkin.
Meskipun Al-Qur'an dan hadis sangat menganjurkan umat Islam untuk memperlakukan hewan secara manusiawi dan Nabi Muhammad menentang perburuan untuk rekreasi, Al-Qur'an secara eksplisit mengizinkan konsumsi daging (halal) di ayat pertama surah Al-Ma'idah. Aturan ritual penyembelihan halal menyebutkan bahwa hewan tidak boleh menderita lebih dari yang diperlukan. Secara historis, umat Islam pertama, yaitu orang Arab nomaden, harus makan daging untuk menopang kehidupan mereka.
Pendapat yang setuju
Beberapa sufi, termasuk Suhrawardi Hamiduddin Nagori dari Nagaur, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, dan beberapa lainnya di Afrika Utara mempraktikkan pola makan vegan yang ketat. Perkumpulan rahasia abad ke-9 hingga ke-10, Ikhwan As-Shafa, menerbitkan sebuah surat berjudul Kasus Hewan versus Manusia, di mana mereka menyampaikan cerita tentang Rabi'ah Basri yang memberi tahu Hasan al-Bashri bahwa hewan-hewan datang kepadanya tetapi lari dari Hasan karena pola makan dagingnya. Ulama India Bashir Ahmad Masri, seorang pelopor kesejahteraan hewan, telah menyatakan ketidakpuasannya terhadap banyaknya kekejaman yang dilakukan terhadap hewan yang berasal dari antroposentrisme dan menganjurkan diet Muslim vegetarian. Beberapa pemikir menghubungkan topik berpantang daging dengan khilafah, tugas pelayanan yang dibebankan Tuhan kepada manusia.
Beberapa fatwa yang dikeluarkan para ahli fikih seperti Ebrahim Desai, Hamza Yusuf, Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah, Muzammil H. Siddiqi, Muhammad al-Munajjid, dan Ali Khamenei menyatakan bahwa berpantang daging boleh bagi umat Islam selama tidak menganggapnya sebagai kewajiban atau cara menjadi Muslim yang lebih baik dibandingkan yang lain. Inayat Khan menyimpulkan bahwa tidak makan daging adalah hal yang diperlukan karena daging "menghambat kemajuan spiritual", sementara tindakan membunuh itu tindakan yang tidak baik. Para pendukung veganisme Islam modern menyebutkan penderitaan berlebihan yang dialami hewan-hewan yang diternakkan di pabrik, kerusakan lingkungan akibat industri daging dan susu, serta infeksi zoonosis sebagai alasan untuk beralih ke pola makan vegan. Penganut vegetarian mengungkapkan kekhawatiran mereka mengenai apakah daging dari hewan yang dipelihara secara tidak manusiawi dapat dianggap halal
meskipun telah disertifikasi demikian. Para dokter Muslim yang menganjurkan vegetarianisme dari
sudut pandang kesehatan juga menggunakan contoh Muhammad sebagai orang yang menjalani gaya hidup "sebagian besar vegetarian". Akademisi Muslim modern yang menganjurkan vegetarianisme termasuk Duke McLeod dan Mohamed Ghilan.
Pendapat yang tidak setuju
Ulama Irak Mawil Izzi Dien memutuskan bahwa vegetarianisme Islam sama sekali tidak dapat diterima. Izzuddin bin Abdissalam: “Orang kafir yang mengharamkan penyembelihan hewan [tanpa suatu alasan melainkan] untuk memperoleh kemaslahatan hewan tersebut adalah keliru, karena dengan demikian dia mengutamakan hewan yang lebih rendah (khasis) dibandingkan hewan yang lebih tinggi (nafis)” dalam Qawa'id al-Ahkam fi Mashalih al-Anam. Ibnu Hazm berpendapat bahwa yang berhak mengharamkan hanyalah mereka yang mampu memahami hukum-hukum Islam. Ulama Pakistan Abul A'la Maududi mengatakan bahwa Islam membolehkan manusia membunuh hewan lain untuk makanan dan membolehkan membunuh hewan yang dianggap berbahaya karena manusia adalah khalifah (utusan) Tuhan. Beberapa ulama memuji pengurangan konsumsi daging, sementara ulama-ulama lain menekankan pentingnya perlakuan manusiawi terhadap hewan, namun tidak mendukung vegetarianisme.
Kaum vegetarian secara historis sering dipandang sebagai kaum yang sesat; contohnya termasuk al- Ma'arri. Pandangan bahwa vegetarianisme itu tidak Islami bermula dari permusuhan historis antara umat Muslim dan penganut Buddhisme dan Hinduisme. Kaum vegetarian dan vegan Muslim modern sering kali harus menghadapi prasangka dan kebencian.
Kurban Iduladha
Kebiasaan menyembelih hewan pada hari raya Iduladha tersebar luas di kalangan umat Islam, namun sebagian besar ahli fikih berpendapat bahwa menyembelih hewan pada hari tersebut hukumnya sunah, bukan wajib. Bashir Ahmad Masri dan beberapa fakih lainnya menyarankan mengganti kurban hewan dengan sedekah atau puasa. Beberapa pihak lainnya menyuarakan penolakan mereka terhadap praktik penyembelihan hewan saat ini yang “berlebihan” yang dagingnya sering kali tidak termakan dan terbuang sia-sia. Aktivis Shahid Ali Muttaqi menulis bahwa penyembelihan pada perayaan Iduladha dilakukan demi nafsu manusia.
Umat Muslim yang melakukan praktik veganisme menyumbangkan uang agar penyembelihan dilakukan atas nama mereka tanpa berpartisipasi di dalamnya, atau menyumbangkannya untuk tujuan amal lainnya.
English to Indonesian: Breastfeeding in Islam General field: Other Detailed field: Religion
Source text - English Breastfeeding in Islam
Breastfeeding is highly regarded in Islam. The Qur'an regards it as a sign of love between the mother and child. In Islamic law, breastfeeding creates ties of milk kinship (known as raḍāʿ or riḍāʿa (Arabic: ,رﺿﺎع رﺿﺎﻋﺔ pronounced [riˈdˤaːʕ(a)])) that has implications in family law. Muslims throughout the world
have varied breastfeeding traditions.
Quran and hadith
Several Qur'anic verses, all dating from the Medinan period, lay down the Islamic ethic of breastfeeding. Quran 28:7 and Quran 28:12 refer to the nursing of Islamic prophet Moses to emphasize the loving bond between baby Moses and his mother. Breastfeeding is implied as a basic Maternal bond in Quran 22:2, which considers a mother neglecting nursing of her child as an unusual sign.
Breastfeeding is considered a basic right of every infant, according to the Qur'an. Quran 2:233. In the case where the child's mother has been divorced by the child's father before or after delivery within the breastfeeding period, the Qur'an also calls on fathers to sponsor the child's nursing by providing food and clothing for the child's mother for duration of breastfeeding, although it allows for earlier weaning of the child by mutual consent of both mother and father. The same verse also allows for motherly breastfeeding to be substituted by wet nursing. Quran 65:6-7 expects the father of the child to be generous towards the wet nurse.
The Quran regards ties due to milk kinship similar to ties due to blood kinship. Therefore Quran 4:23 prohibits a man from having sexual relations with his "milk mother" or "milk sister"; hadith explain that the wet-nurse's husband is also included as a milk kin, eg. a woman may not marry her wet-nurse's husband. According to scholars, this prohibition is not found in the Jewish and Christian tradition, though it is found in matrilineal groups.
In Islamic law
Breastfeeding is considered one of the most fundamental rights of a child in Islamic law. Muslim jurists have given extensive treatment to this topic, for example Al-Mawardi (d. 1058) wrote an entire treatise Kitab al-rada on the topic of breastfeeding. This includes the specifics related to the right of being breastfed, as well as implications of breastfeeding on prohibiting marriage between individuals related by milk kinship.
Right to breastfeeding
The right to be breastfed is considered one of the most important rights of a child in Islamic law. If the mother is unable to breastfeed the child, then the father must pay a wet nurse to do so. If the parents of the child are divorced, the father must compensate his former wife with payments during breastfeeding. The Jafaris further opine that a mother has the right to compensation for breastfeeding even if the parents are married. However, the Sunni schools of thought disagree, arguing the father is not obligated to pay the mother if the two are divorced; the wife already has the right to maintenance (food and clothing) under Islamic law.
Some opinions hold that a mother has the right to breastfeed her children, but can choose not to if she wishes. This is an extension of the general principle, in Islamic law, that a mother has the right to raise her children, but she may renounce this right as it is not her duty.
Milk kinship for infants
The Qur'an regards breastfeeding to establish milk kinship which has implications for marriage.
Islamic jurisprudence extensively discusses the precise delineation of which relationships are subject to prohibition once the milk relationship is established. Shi'ite Islam also prohibits marriage to the consanguineous kin of a milk-parent as per the Qur'an. In Shi'ite societies, the wet nurse was always from a subordinate group, so that marriage to her kin would not have been likely. Texts mentioned that Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence, also dealt with similar questions.
The minimum number of sucklings necessary to establish the milk-kinship, has been the subject of extensive debate. For the adherents of older schools of law, such as the Malikis and Hanafis, one suckling was enough. Others, such as the Shafiʿis, maintain that the minimum number was five or ten, arguing that a Qur'ānic verse had once stipulated this number until had been abrogated from the Qur'ānic text, but the ruling was still in place. Imam Malik, however, believed that the ruling was abrogated along with the wording.
Adult suckling
The following tradition (hadith) treats both this topic as well as that of radā al-kabīr, or suckling of an adult or breastfeeding an adult and number of sucklings:
Urwah ibn al-Zubayr reports that the Prophet commanded the wife of Abū Hudhayfa to feed her husband's mawlā [i.e. servant], Sālim, so that he could go on living with them [upon attaining manhood].
For most jurists (Ibn Hazm being one prominent exception), the bar to marriage was effective only if the nursling was an infant. Yet even these allowed that a new relationship resulted between the two; Ibn Rushd, for example, ruled that the woman could now comport herself more freely in front of the nursed adult male, such as appearing before him unveiled. The famous traditionist Muhammad al-Bukhari was forced to resign his position of mufti and leave the city of Bukhara after ruling that two nurslings who suckled from the same farm animal became milk-siblings.
See also
Fiqh
Islamic marital jurisprudence
Mahram
Islam and children
Islamic feminism
Women and Islam
Milk kinship
Translation - Indonesian Menyusui dalam Islam
Menyusui sangat dihormati dalam Islam. Al-Qur'an memandangnya sebagai tanda cinta antara ibu dan anak. Dalam hukum Islam, menyusui menciptakan ikatan kekerabatan susu (dikenal sebagai raḍāʿ atau riḍāʿa (bahasa Arab: رﺿﺎﻋﺔ ,رﺿﺎع pelafalan [riˈdˤaːʕ(a)])) yang memiliki implikasi dalam hukum keluarga. Umat Islam di seluruh dunia memiliki tradisi menyusui yang bervariasi.
Al-Qur'an dan hadis
Beberapa ayat Al-Qur'an, yang semuanya berasal dari periode Madinah, menetapkan etika Islam dalam menyusui. Qur'an Al-Qasas:7 dan Qur'an Al-Qasas:12 mengacu pada penyusuan Nabi Musa untuk menekankan ikatan kasih sayang antara bayi Musa dan ibunya. Menyusui disebut secara tersirat sebagai ikatan keibuan dasar dalam Qur'an Al-Hajj:2, yang menganggap seorang ibu yang lalai menyusui anaknya sebagai tanda yang tidak biasa.
Menyusui dianggap sebagai hak dasar setiap bayi menurut Al-Qur'an. Menurut Qur'an Al-Baqarah:233, dalam situasi ibu dari anak tersebut telah diceraikan oleh bapak si anak, baik sebelum maupun setelah melahirkan dalam masa menyusui, maka Al-Qur’an juga menyerukan kepada para bapak untuk membiayai perawatan anak tersebut dengan menyediakan makanan dan pakaian kepada ibu si anak selama masa menyusui, meskipun diperbolehkan untuk menyapih anak lebih awal dengan persetujuan kedua belah pihak, baik ibu maupun bapak. Ayat yang sama juga memperbolehkan pemberian ASI digantikan oleh ibu susu. Qur'an 65:7 mengharapkan bapak dari anak tersebut untuk bermurah hati terhadap si ibu susu.
Al-Quran menganggap hubungan kekerabatan karena susu sama dengan hubungan kekerabatan karena darah. Oleh karena itu, Qur'an An-Nisa’:23 melarang seorang laki-laki melakukan hubungan seksual dengan ibu susu atau saudara perempuan sepersusuannya. Hadis menerangkan bahwa suami ibu susu juga termasuk kerabat susu, misalnya, seorang wanita tidak boleh menikahi suami ibu susunya. Menurut para ulama, larangan ini tidak terdapat dalam tradisi Yahudi dan Kristen, meskipun terdapat pada kelompok matrilineal.
Dalam hukum Islam
Menyusui dianggap sebagai salah satu hak paling mendasar anak dalam hukum Islam. Para ahli fikih telah banyak memberikan penafsiran mengenai topik ini, misalnya Al-Mawardi (w. 1058) yang menulis risalah berjudul Kitab al-Rada'ah mengenai topik menyusui. Ini mencakup hal-hal spesifik yang terkait dengan hak untuk disusui, serta implikasi menyusui dalam melarang pernikahan antar individu yang terhubung oleh kekerabatan susu.
Hak untuk menyusui
Hak untuk disusui dianggap sebagai salah satu hak anak yang paling penting dalam hukum Islam. Jika sang ibu tidak mampu menyusui anaknya, maka sang bapak harus membayar seorang ibu susu untuk melakukannya. Jika kedua orang tua anak tersebut bercerai, maka sang bapak wajib memberi mantan
istrinya imbalan selama menyusui. Para ulama Ja'fari lebih jauh berpendapat bahwa seorang ibu berhak mendapat kompensasi selama menyusui sekalipun jika kedua ibu dan bapak itu menikah. Namun, mazhab suni tidak setuju dan berpendapat bahwa sang bapak tidak berkewajiban membayar nafkah kepada sang ibu jika keduanya bercerai; sedangkan seorang istri sudah memiliki hak atas nafkah (makanan dan
pakaian) berdasarkan hukum Islam.
Beberapa pendapat menyatakan bahwa seorang ibu memiliki hak untuk menyusui anak-anaknya, namun dapat memilih untuk tidak melakukannya jika ia menginginkannya. Hal ini merupakan perluasan dari asas umum dalam hukum Islam, bahwa seorang ibu mempunyai hak untuk membesarkan anak-anaknya, namun ia boleh melepaskan hak tersebut karena hal tersebut bukan merupakan kewajibannya.
Kekerabatan susu bagi bayi
Al-Qur'an memandang pemberian ASI untuk membentuk kekerabatan susu yang memiliki implikasi pada pernikahan.
Fikih membahas secara luas penggambaran yang tepat tentang hubungan mana yang terlarang setelah hubungan penyusuan terbentuk. Islam Syiah juga melarang pernikahan dengan kerabat sedarah dari orang tua susu sebagaimana tercantum dalam Al-Qur'an. Dalam masyarakat Syiah, ibu susu selalu berasal dari kelompok masyarakat lebih rendah, sehingga pernikahan dengan kerabat ibu susu tidak mungkin terjadi. Teks-teks menyebutkan bahwa Ahmad bin Hanbal, pendiri mazhab Hambali, juga membahas pertanyaan serupa.
Jumlah minimum penyusuan yang diperlukan untuk membentuk kekerabatan susu telah menjadi subyek perdebatan luas. Bagi penganut mazhab lama seperti Maliki dan Hanafi, satu kali menyusu sudah cukup. Sementara yang lain, seperti Syafi'i, berpendapat bahwa jumlah minimal adalah lima atau sepuluh, dan menyatakan bahwa suatu ayat Al-Qur'an pernah menetapkan jumlah tersebut hingga ayat tersebut dibatalkan dari teks Al-Qur'an, tetapi ketetapannya masih berlaku. Namun, Imam Malik meyakini bahwa ketetapan tersebut telah dibatalkan beserta dengan ayatnya.
Penyusuan pada orang dewasa
Hadis berikut membahas baik topik ini maupun topik rada'ah al-kabir atau menyusui pria dewasa dan jumlah penyusuan:
Urwah bin az-Zubair meriwayatkan bahwa Nabi memerintahkan istri Abu Hudzaifah untuk memberi ASI pada maula (pembantu) suaminya, Salim, agar dia bisa terus tinggal bersama mereka (setelah dewasa).
Bagi sebagian besar ahli fikih (dengan Ibnu Hazm sebagai pengecualian terkemuka), larangan menikah hanya berlaku jika anak yang disusui masih bayi. Namun, hal ini pun memungkinkan terjadinya hubungan baru antara keduanya; misalnya Ibnu Rusyd, yang menetapkan bahwa si wanita kini bisa bersikap lebih bebas di hadapan laki-laki dewasa yang dulu disusui, misalnya dengan tampil di hadapan laki-laki tersebut tanpa mengenakan jilbab. Ahli hadis terkenal Muhammad al-Bukhari dipaksa mengundurkan diri dari jabatannya sebagai mufti dan meninggalkan kota Bukhara setelah menetapkan bahwa dua anak yang disusui dari hewan ternak yang sama menjadi saudara sepersusuan.
Lihat pula
Fikih
Hukum perkawinan Islam
Mahram
Islam dan anak-anak
Feminisme islam
Perempuan dan Islam
Kekerabatan susu
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